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96. ILO 2000a, article 6, says that cash benefitsshould be paid ‘at a level which ensures thatthe woman can maintain herself and herchild in proper conditions of health and witha suitable standard of living’. Where cashbenefits are based on previous earnings, theyshould be not less than two thirds of these.97. ILO 2014d. Maternity payments fully replaceprevious earnings in one third of OECDcountries. The United States is the only OECDcountry where the statutory right to 12 weeksof leave is unpaid (Hegewisch and Gornick2011).98. Haas and Rosgaard 2011.99. Hegewisch and Gornick 2011.100. ILO 2014d.101. Melkas and Anker 1998.102. World Bank 2011.103. Ibid.; Ñopo et al. 2011.104. Anker 1997; Anker et al. 2003; ILO 2013d.105. Globally, women are 40 per cent of those whoare employed. ILO 2015c.106. UN Women calculations using data from USBureau of Labour Statistics 2014.107. See Anker et al. 2003 for research onoccupational segregation in the 1990s.108. See Anker 1997; Bettio and Verashchagina2009; Estevez-Abe 2006 for reviews.109. Blau et al. 2013.110. Ibid.111. UNESCO 2012b, Fig 5.5.1; World Bank 2011,Table 3.1.112. Miller et al. 2004; Tripney et al. 2013.113. FRA 2014.114. Hegewisch and O’Farrell 2014.115. Agarwala 2013; Smith et al. 2004.116. McLaughlin et al. 2012.117. Agarwala 2013; Smith et al. 2004; Roever andChen 2014.118. ILO 2015c.119. Anker 2001, Charles 2003.120. UN Women calculations using data from ILO2015c; ILO and WIEGO 2013.121. Charles 2003; Charles and Grusky 2005.122. World Bank 2015c.123. UIS 2013.124. ILO 2012a.125. Staritz and Reis 2013.126. UN Women 2014a.127. Todd 2012; Ñopo et al. 2007.128. AWARD 2015.129. Peeters 2007.130. Ibid. The Government’s action plan GenderEquality 2014 reiterates this 20 per cent target.See The Government of Norway 2012.131. Bettio and Verashchagina 2009.132. The Economist 2014a, b.133. OECD 2015.134. Antecol and Cobb-Clark 2003.135. UN Women 2012a.136. ILO 2014b.137. ITUC 2014.138. Gender pay gaps refer to the differencebetween the average wages of women andmen as a percentage of men’s wages.139. Wage data, particularly in developingcountries, should always be interpreted withcaution. There are important methodologicalchallenges related to the measurement ofwages and the extent to which women’s andmen’s wages differ. In addition, wage andincome data are notoriously difficult andexpensive to collect, as well as unreliable,particularly in developing countries whereself-employment is the norm. See Blau andKahn 2000; Petersen and Morgan 1995;Zveglich and van der Meulen 2004.140. Data for Colombia covers only main citiesor metropolitan areas. In the case of thePhilippines, the gender pay gap favourswomen, but women’s pay advantage hasdeclined. In Uruguay, women’s real wages didnot change while men’s real wages declined,resulting in a decline of the gender pay gap.141. Campbell and Pearlman 2013; Antonczyk,DeLeire et al. 2010; Bernhardt et al. 1995.142. Cortez 2001; Galiani and Sanguinetti 2003;Kijima 2006.143. Christofides et al. 2013.144. OECD 2012b.145. Christofides et al. 2013146. Ñopo et al. 2011.147. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Womenas the difference between women’s and men’swages as a percentage of men’s wages usingdata in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.148. King-Dejardin and Bigotta 2009.149. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Womenas the difference between women’s and men’swages as a percentage of men’s wages usingdata in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.150. Atal et al. 2009, García-Aracil and Winter2006.151. Ñopo et al. 2011.152. Arulampalam et al. 2007; Blau and Kahn2000; Kabeer 2012; Waldfogel 1998.153. Out of 53 for which data were available.World Bank 2011.154. Hegewisch and Hartmann 2014.155. Harkness and Waldfogel 2003; Waldfogel1998, as cited in Budig 2014.156. Budig 2014.157. Gender wage gap calculated by UN Womenas the difference between women’s and men’swages as a percentage of men’s wages usingdata in Table 3.A and 3.B in Ñopo et al. 2011.158. Christofides et al. 2013.159. Antonczyk, Fitzenberger et al. 2010; Azam andRospabé 2007; Card et al. 2003; Korpi et al.2013; Blau and Khan 2003.160. Austen et al. 2013.161. UNISON 2013, 2014.162. Gamwell 2013, UK Supreme Court 2012.163. Davies 2014. GBP 1.1 billion, based on 11 April2014 conversion rate.164. Austen et al. 2013165. AUS $2 billion, based on 1 February 2012conversion rate.166. ACTU 2012.167. European Commission 2013; Greszczuk 2015.168. Male low pay rates calculated by UN Womenusing low pay and employment data fromILO 2015b.169. Rubery and Grimshaw 2009.170. Belser and Rani 2011. These estimatesare based on simulations on the effectsof extending the minimum wage toall workers in India, including those ininformal employment, and assume perfectcompliance.171. ILO 2013i.172. ILO 2014g.173. ILO 2013i.174. Ibid.175. Ibid.176. ILO 2013b.177. UN Women calculations using data fromTable 3.5 in Statistics South Africa 2013.178. Dinkelman and Ranchhod 2012. Minimumwage increases are regularly determined bythe South African Employment ConditionsCommission based on a percentageincrease over and above the ConsumerPrices Index (CPI).179. ILO 2013i.180. Razavi and Staab 2010. See p. 409 fordefinitions of what paid care work includes.181. Budig and Misra 2010182. Budig and England 2001; England andFolbre 2002; Razavi and Staab 2010.183. Mulholland 2005.184. Charles 2003; Estevez-Abe 2006185. Folbre 2006.186. Informal employment comprises allinformal jobs that are carried out in formalsector enterprises, informal enterprises orhouseholds. The term ‘informal’ denotesjobs that are not covered in law orpractice by labour laws or social security.Informal employment generally includeslack of protection in the event of nonpaymentof wages, compulsory overtimeor extra shifts, lay-offs without notice orcompensation, unsafe working conditionsand the absence of social benefits suchas pensions, pay for sick leave and healthinsurance. Within informal employment,a distinction is generally made between‘wage employment’ on the one hand andself-employment on the other. ‘Wageworkers’, irrespective of whether they areformal or informal, usually hold an explicitor implicit employment contract thatstipulates a basic hourly, daily, weekly ormonthly remuneration in cash or in kind,irrespective of the revenue of the enterprise.The remuneration of self-employed workers,on the other hand, is directly tied to theearnings of their enterprise. See ILO andWIEGO 2013; ILO 1993.187. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2005.188. UN Women calculations using data from ILO2015c.189. Kabeer, Assad et al. 2013.190. Townsend et al. 2013.309