1GzuFGC

109. Arenas de Mesa and Montecinos 1999.110. Arza 2014.111. Fajnzylber 2013.112. Ewig and Kay 2011.113. Arza 2014.114. Rofman et al. 2008.115. Although this has been changing in highincomecountries, differences remain in manycountries.116. Arza 2014.117. Vlachantoni 2008.118. Arza 2014.119. Ibid. Measured as a rate of previous earnings,with between 3 and 15 years of careerinterruption.120. Balcerzak-Paradowska et al. 2003; Staab 2012.121. Fultz 2011.122. Tobias and Omondi 2014; HelpAgeInternational 2014b.123. HelpAge International 2014a.124. HelpAge International 2014c.125. Arza 2014.126. ILO 2010b.127. Fraser 1987.128. Education is discussed separately in Chapters 1and 2.129. ‘In kind services’ are valued at production costs.130. Verbist et al. 2012.131. van Houweling et al. 2012, cited in Fontana andElson 2014.132. Devoto et al. 2012, cited in Fontana and Elson2014.133. See Annex 5.134. Ibid.135. ILO 2014h.136. See, for example DHS 2011, 2013 and 2014a,b.137. WHO 2015b.138. Snyder et al. 2014.139. Kentikelenis et al. 2014.140. WHO 2015a.141. Hogan 2014.142. IRC 2014.143. UNIFEM (now part of UN Women) 2008.144. George 2003.145. Sen and Östlin 2007; WHO 2010a.146. UN DESA 2013c.147. WHO 2010b.148. Due to women’s many responsibilities, limitedaccess to means of transport and socialnorms in some cultures that discourage theirpresence in public spaces.149. Pandey et al. 2013; Målqvist et al. 2013.150. Bowser and Hill 2010.151. ILO 2014h; WHO 2010b.152. UNRISD 2010a.153. ILO 2014h.154. WHO 2009.155. WHO 2010a.156. Xu et al. 2009.157. Johnson et al. 2012.158. Ravindran 2012; Quick et al. 2014.159. WHO 2010b.160. The paucity of sex-disaggregated data onthe outcomes of these reforms makes it isdifficult to arrive at definitive conclusionsabout their impact on women and girls(Allotey and Verghis 2014).161. WHO 2010a.162. Claeson et al. 2000.163. Ravindran 2012. Globally, an estimated 21.6million unsafe abortions took place in 2008,mostly in developing countries, resulting in47,000 deaths or about 13 per cent of allmaternal deaths in that year (WHO 2011).164. The discussion of US health-care reform isbased on a background paper by Albeldaand Salas Coronado (2013) commissioned forthis report.165. Planned Parenthood 2014.166. Medicare provides health insurancecoverage for persons over age 65 and thosewith some disabilities. Medicaid pays forhealth-care services for low- and moderateincomechildren and very low-income adults.It is jointly financed by the state and federalgovernments and administered by the states(and in some cases local governments). In2010, women were 62 per cent of those usingboth Medicare and Medicaid.167. Liptak 2014.168. Only 31 states cover the costs of familyplanning services for low-income womenthrough Medicaid, with 17 including‘medically necessary’ abortion. Since themid-1970s, however, states have beenprecluded from using federal Medicaidmoney on abortions except in cases of rape,incest or when the woman’s life is in danger.169. The Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme(CSMBS) and the Compulsory SocialSecurity Scheme (SSS) for private sectoremployees combine to cover 22 per cent ofthe population (Sakunphanit and Suwanrada2011).170. Sakunphanit and Suwanrada 2011.171. Ravindran 2012.172. The initial co-payment of 30 Baht (US$ 0.70)was abolished in 2006, but reintroduced in2012. A series of groups are exempt fromthese payments, including the poor, theelderly and children below 12 years of age(Allotey and Verghis 2014).173. Averill and Marriott 2013.174. Gruber et al. 2012; Hanvoravongchai 2013.175. Towse et al. 2004.176. Allotey and Verghis 2014.177. Soors et al. 2010.178. Ravindran 2012.179. Averill and Marriott 2013.180. Gajate-Garrido and Owusua 2013.181. Ghana Statistical Service 2011.182. 200 Rwandan francs ($0.36) at the primarycare level and 10 per cent of the cost at thelevel of district hospitals (Lu et al. 2012).183. Farmer et al. 2013.184. National Institute of Statistics of Rwandaand ORC Macro 2006; National Institute ofStatistics of Rwanda et al. 2012.185. Mutuelles represent a small fraction of totalhealth spending, which remains dependent oninternational aid (53 per cent in 2012) and outof-pocketpayments (21 per cent in 2012). WHO2014b.186. Farmer et al. 2013.187. WHO et al. 2014.188. Ibid.189. Farmer et al. 2013; Chambers and Booth 2012.190. McIntyre et al. 2013; Oxfam International 2013.191. Ravindran 2012.192. Sen and Olstin 2007.193. ICF International 2015.194. WHO 2010a.195. Zhu et al. 2014.196. Khan 2014.197. Bowser and Hill 2010.198. Garcia-Moreno 2002; WHO 2010a.199. Ashford and Feldman-Jacobs 2010.200. Das and Dasgupta 2013.201. Muna 2014; UNFPA and SPC 2010.202. Ewig 2006.203. UNFPA 2014b.204. UN General Assembly 1990, articles 7, 18.205. Knijn and Kremer 1997.206. UN General Assembly 2013b.207. Daly 2001; Gornick and Meyers 2008; Razavi2007; Williams 2010.208. Bedford 2010.209. Morris 2001; Williams 2004, 2010.210. Parker and Clarke 2002.211. Kröger 2009.212. Fine and Glendinning 2005.213. Kittay 2011: 49.214. UNRISD 2010b.215. There are few data available on care servicesfor the frail elderly or people with disabilities,216. OECD 2014b.217. OECD 2011.218. Daly 2014.219. Fleckenstein and Lee 2014; Morgan 2013.220. See Annex 2 for 2012 pre-primary enrolmentdata.221. Lopreite and Macdonald 2013; Blofield andMartìnez Franzoni 2014; Staab and Gerhard2011.222. Daly 2014; Blofield and Martìnez Franzoni 2014.223. Day-care services for mothers in formalemployment are provided through the socialsecurity system.224. Araujo et al. 2013.225. Staab and Gerhard 2011.226. Staab 2014, based on household survey data.227. Abe 2010.228. ILO 2014h.229. OECD 2011.230. HelpAge Korea 2014.231. ILO 2014h.232. Mayston et al. 2014.233. Prince et al. 2012.234. Aguirre 2012.