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15. Htun and Weldon 2014; Hallward-Driemeier etal. 2013.16. Out of 140 countries with available data. Thisrefers to countries that place restrictions onthe jobs that women who are neither pregnantnor nursing can do (World Bank 2015c).17. Razavi and Staab 2010.18. UN DESA 2010.19. ILO 2013d.20. ILO 2015c.21. ILO 2014c.22. Due to differences in the data, coverageand estimation methods, these figures, aspresented in Annex 4, may differ slightly fromthose reported in ILO 2014c.23. ILO 2014c.24. Dolan and Sorby 2003.25. Atkinson et al. 2011; UNDP 2013b.26. UNRISD 2010a.27. ILO 2014g; World Bank 2012.28. Lustig et al. 2012.29. Elborgh-Woytek et al. 2013.30. Berg 2010.31. This compares to an increase from 34 per centto 40 per cent for employed men (Gammageet al. 2014a).32. Berg 2009.33. The SIMPLES law is a simplified tax regime formini and small enterprises. See Nes 2012.34. IPEA 2009, as cited in Berg 2010. BolsaFamilia is a Brazilian conditional cash transferprogramme introduced in 2003 as part ofthe Government’s Fome Zero (Zero Hunger)Programme.35. The employment-to-population ratio (alsocalled employment rate), expressed as thenumber of people working for pay or profit asa percentage of the working age population,is also often used as another labour marketindicator. The LFPR, the unemployment rateand the employment-to-population ratio areimportant indicators of the extent to whichopportunities are available or barriers existfor people to participate in the labour market.For further definitions and discussions of themerits of these indicators. See ILO 2010c.36. ICLS 2013. For a summary of debates, seeCard 2011.37. For additional changes to statistics of work,employment and labour underutilization, seeILO 2013g.38. UN Women calculations using data from ILO2015c.39. Kapsos et al. 2014; Kannan and Raveendran2012; Raveendran 2014.40. Thévenon 2011; Plomien and Potoczna 2014.41. UN DESA 2013b.42. Assuming a normal working life of 45 yearsfrom age 20 to age 65. This estimate usesthe method of Bloom, Canning et al. 2009,adjusted for the decline in median fertilityrates globally from 5.2 per cent to 2.4 percent.43. Elson 1999; Kabeer 2012.44. Kabeer 2008; Kandiyoti 1988.45. ILO 2015c.46. Staying in education can also constitutea rational but costly response to a lackof opportunities for quality employment(McGuinness 2006).47. This brief section cannot do justice to the fullrange of important policy issues related togender equality and education. For furtherinformation on education and development, seethe multiyear UNESCO Education for All: GlobalMonitoring Reports.48. Malhotra et al. 2003.49. UNESCO 2012b; UN Women calculations usingdata from Barro and Lee 2014. Values on meanyears of education may differ from thosepresented in Annex 2 due to differences inregional coverage.50. ESF 2006; Elborgh-Woytek et al. 2013.51. Posel and Casale 2014a, b.52. Ibid; Kolev and Sirven 2010.53. Transition is defined as either entering into astable job (i.e., with a contract of at least 12months) or into (self-assessed) satisfactorytemporary work or self-employment. ILO 2013d;Guarcello et al. 2005; Matsumoto and Elder2010.54. Ñopo et al. 2011.55. Posel and Casale 2014a, b.56. Due to the absence of adequate panel data, thedistributions of total lifetime income per cohortcannot be determined. The determination ofaverage total lifetime income gaps thus hasto resort to the construction of an indicator for‘standard individuals’ rather than statisticalaverages based on distributions of lifetimeincomes. Similar standardizing methodologiesare used in situations where individualbiographies are too complex or data donot allow for the establishment of statisticaldistributions and potential effects of transfersystems yet have to be demonstrated. Seecomplete details in Cichon 2014.57. See Annex 4.58. Boll 2011. EUR 201,000, based on 5 April 2011conversion rate.59. UNRISD 2010b. See Chapter 4 for furtherdiscussion.60. Elson 1999.61. In addition, voluntary work and unpaidapprenticeships are other forms of unpaid work.62. European Commission et al. 2009.63. ICLS 2013.64. UN DESA 2010.65. Budlender 2008.66. Office National des Statistiques (Algeria) 2013.67. Unpaid care and domestic work is defined in thesurvey as ‘household maintenance’ and’ care ofpersons’ (see Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2008).Note that the data for different countries are notstrictly comparable since the definitions used ineach survey vary.68. Meena 2010.69. UN Women 2014b.70. Eurostat 2014.71. Esping-Andersen 1999; Thévenon 2011, 2013.72. Thévenon 2013.73. Dong et al. 2014.74. Gammage and Kraft 2014.75. Colombo et al. 2011.76. Johnson and Lo Sasso 2006.77. UN DESA 2013d.78. For example, the provision of childcare servicesto enable women to participate in employmentguarantee schemes is discussed in Chapter 3.79. UN Women 2014d.80. See Chapter 6 of UN Women 2014d for a review ofpolicy interventions to provide clean cook stoves.81. For example, in Ghana, time spent on paid workincreases when electricity supplies are providedto households and rural women’s time burdenis reduced by the provision of reliable watersupplies near their homes. Similarly, the expansionof electricity networks in rural South Africawas associated with an increase of women’semployment by 9.5 percentage points in fiveyears while having no effect on men. See Costa etal. 2009; Dinkelman 2011.82. ILO 2000a, art. 4 and 6. The accompanyingrecommendation 191 (ILO 2000b), which isintended to provide additional (non-binding)guidance to countries, recommends a minimumof 18 weeks paid maternity leave.83. Out of 185 countries surveyed (ILO 2014d).84. 28 per cent is the ‘effective coverage rate’ of paidmaternity leave globally (ILO 2014h).85. ILO 2014h.86. Ray et al. 2010.87. OECD 2011. There is a range of views on theoptimal amount of maternity leave, but severalcommentators suggest six months is about theright level. See Gornick et al. 2009.88. ILO 2014d. There are currently no ILO standardson paternity or parental leave. The 2009International Labour Conference Resolution ongender equality at the heart of decent work calledfor governments to develop, together with thesocial partners, adequate policies allowing for abetter balance of work and family responsibilitiesfor both women and men in order to allow amore equal sharing of these responsibilities.Such policies should include, among other things,paternity and/or parental leave with incentivesto encourage men to take up such leave. See ILO2009, paras. 6 and 42.89. Haas and Rostgaard 2011.90. ILO 2014d. All 16 countries in Central Asia and alldeveloped countries except Switzerland offerparental leave.91. In the region, seven countries have no paternityleave, nine grant between one and five days andthree grant more than five days (Blofield andMartìnez Franzoni 2014).92. Haas and Rostgaard 2011.93. Rudman and Mescher 2013.94. Haas and Rostgaard 2011.95. One study focused on Sweden, which has beenat the forefront of policy innovation in this area,shows that father’s greater uptake of parentalleave has not led them to take more time off tocare for a sick child (Ekberg et al. 2005). A studyon the United States, however, found that fatherswho took two weeks off work after the birth oftheir child were more likely to be doing their shareof childcare nine months later (Nepomnyaschyand Waldfogel 2007). The effect of parentaland paternity leave on social norms surroundingunpaid care and domestic work is an issuemeriting further research.