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dral’ of modernity had to strike a delicate balance between representing<br />
a post-Victorian world in which women were free to enter the public<br />
arena without fear, while simultaneously providing them with an aspirational,<br />
luxurious space which would stimulate the consumption of the<br />
new goods on offer. <strong>The</strong> department stores were undoubtedly the most<br />
striking of the commercial interiors of nineteenth-century modernity to<br />
build on the language established by the Great Exhibition. <strong>The</strong>ir restaurants,<br />
lounges and tea rooms were, however, part of the network of<br />
domesticated public spaces that belonged to the same era and that played<br />
an important role in the female experience of modernity. Marshall Field’s<br />
store in Chicago had an equally spectacular interior consisting of an open<br />
central atrium which could be looked down upon from the open balconies<br />
of the building’s four floors. <strong>The</strong> whole interior was covered by an<br />
enormous domed ceiling covered with mosaic tiles, which was designed<br />
by Louis Comfort Tiffany, one of the us’s most fashionable decorators of<br />
the period. Garlands of flowers were suspended from the ceilings to soften<br />
the repetitive arrangement of rows of horseshoe-shaped glazed counters<br />
and storage cabinets with multiple drawers which covered the store’s<br />
floors. Once again the rational, open structure which exposed the goods<br />
on sale was offset by decorative features, adding a level of domestic comfort.<br />
22 Museums and art galleries were also affected by the advent of iron<br />
and glass. Edinburgh’s Royal Museum building on Chambers Street, built<br />
between 1861 and 1888, contained behind its Venetian façade a dramatic<br />
iron and glass main hall that had much in common with the open spaces<br />
of department stores.<br />
While the exhibition space, the department store and the museum<br />
were public spaces dedicated to commerce and culture, the work spaces<br />
of the factory and the office, which were equally important to the creation<br />
of economic capital but not accessible to the general public in the<br />
same way, also went through a radical modernization process at that<br />
time. This was based, in these cases, on the need for enhanced productivity<br />
and efficiency. In the spaces of the factory and the office visuality was<br />
subordinated to utility and the process of rationalization was applied to<br />
that end. Rationalism had been one of modernity’s driving forces from<br />
the era of the Enlightenment onwards, given momentum by the increasing<br />
secularization of society and the growing importance of science. It<br />
affected society and culture in a number of different ways, including the<br />
manner in which industrial work was organized. Driven by the profit<br />
motive underpinning economic capitalism, factory work practices, such 119