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124<br />
processing of administrative tasks, which were, of course, no less important<br />
to local and national economies. Office work was seen as being ripe<br />
for potential rational reorganization as a means of increasing efficiency.<br />
By the late nineteenth century the office helped men and women to<br />
engage in a relationship with the modern world, less (as in the public<br />
context of consumption) through the creation of theatrical fantasies or<br />
idealized modern interiors than through a forced proximity to new<br />
machines which transformed the nature of work in that particular environment.<br />
Going out to work was men’s primary means of entering the<br />
public sphere. <strong>The</strong>y encountered there a set of newly rationalized work<br />
practices and standardized routines that rapidly became part of modern<br />
living and that determined the nature of the interior spaces they occupied.<br />
It took some time, though, for the appearance of the office to<br />
overtly reflect the fact that it had become an important site of masculine<br />
modernity. In the middle years of the nineteenth century it was still a<br />
dark dingy place with high wooden desks that allowed individuals a high<br />
level of privacy, stools and dark panelled walls. 28 Lights, adjusted by<br />
weight and pulley systems (like those used in factories) were introduced<br />
as soon as electricity became available, replacing the candles and gas<br />
lights that had preceded them. Visitors to an office usually encountered<br />
a wooden counter serviced by an office boy. Office work could even be<br />
undertaken in railway carriages, either with the assistance of a small writing<br />
desk suspended from the luggage rack above or within an appropriately<br />
modified carriage which came complete with a lady typist. 29<br />
<strong>The</strong> expansion of commercial activity in the latter half of the nineteenth<br />
century brought with it the formation of large companies demanding<br />
more expansive spaces. In addition the introduction of typewriters<br />
and adding machines created the need for departmentalization in the<br />
office. As a result small, mixed purpose offices gave way to regimented<br />
typing pools and accounts sections. As in Ford’s Highland Park factory,<br />
management increasingly distinguished itself by inhabiting offices that,<br />
complete with family photos, ornate furniture, patterned wallpaper and<br />
decorative objects arranged on the mantelpiece, resembled the gentleman’s<br />
study in the middle-class home. Indeed the distinction between<br />
areas designated for middle-class occupation in a number of public spaces<br />
– including those in trains and ocean liners – and those destined for the<br />
working classes was frequently made through the contrast of comfortable<br />
domesticated spaces with more utilitarian and regimented interiors, the<br />
latter emphasizing the uniformity of the masses and characterized by an