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were linked to a general desire at that time to grant the housewife a new<br />
professional status, to make her the equivalent of a scientist working in<br />
his laboratory. Not only was the housewife to be seen as an efficient<br />
worker, she was also expected to have considerable managerial responsibility<br />
in the home making her ‘an executive as well as a manual labourer’.<br />
10 Although its effects were felt much more strongly in the kitchen than<br />
in the other spaces of the house, Frederick’s advocacy of scientific management<br />
in the home had a significant impact on the development of the<br />
modern interior. It confirmed the movement away from the home as a<br />
place ruled by moral, spiritual, ideological and aesthetic values, and the<br />
‘irrational’ forces of feminine consumption, and towards it becoming<br />
one in which the emphasis was on its occupants undertaking household<br />
tasks and which recalled the public spaces in which they worked.<br />
Frederick’s attempt to transform the home into an arena dominated by<br />
reason opened the way for a completely new way of thinking about<br />
domestic equipment and furniture and their spatial arrangements in the<br />
home. It served to undermine Victorian domestic ideology and the idea<br />
of the separate spheres, and to align the home with the public, rational<br />
face of industrial modernity.<br />
In their desire to raise the status of the housewife, Frederick and<br />
others, including Lillian Gilbreth, the wife of Frank Gilbreth, a colleague<br />
of F. W. Taylor, aimed to rethink the bases on which the concept of modern<br />
domesticity and, by implication, its interior spaces, were conceived.<br />
An even more radical idea was embraced by another group of American<br />
women, described as ‘material feminists’, however. <strong>The</strong>y sought to reject<br />
not only the Victorian domestic ideal but also the idea of family life that<br />
underpinned it. Above all, like the European <strong>Modern</strong>ists who came after<br />
them, they understood the potential of interior space not only to reflect<br />
social ideals but actually to embody them and make them a reality. 11 Even<br />
more actively than Frederick, women such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman,<br />
the author of the <strong>The</strong> Home: Its Work and Influence (1903), challenged<br />
the physical separation of household space from public space and looked<br />
to the latter as a model with which to transform the former. Gilman was<br />
concerned about the psychological effects of bourgeois domesticity on<br />
women. Her 1892 novella <strong>The</strong> Yellow Wallpaper described a woman<br />
descending into mental illness through being forced to take a rest cure at<br />
home. ‘It is not’, wrote Gilman, ‘that women are really smaller-minded,<br />
weaker-minded, more timid and vacillating, but that whosoever, man or<br />
woman, lives always in a small, dark place, is always guarded, protected,