rural-urban dynamics_report.pdf - Khazar University

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138 URBANIZATION AND THE MDGS GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 stringent barriers to urban expansion. As an alternative, a flexible definition of public purpose can be combined with a strong judicial system to guide and evaluate acquisition decisions on a case-by-case basis. If a flexible definition is used, it becomes increasingly important to provide a clear definition of the process to adjudicate conflicts in cases where the “public purpose” of a particular acquisition is questioned, as well as to establish the institutions that guarantee that affected parties can voice their concerns. Coordinate land management with infrastructure, housing, and transport Manage densities Just as valuing land and assigning property rights are challenges for accommodating urban expansion, so are managing densities within cities and finding ways to finance urban expansion and city renewal. One widely used tool for managing densities is the floor space index (FSI), or floor area ratio. This is the ratio of the gross floor area of a building on a lot divided by the area of that lot. If, for example, the FSI in an area of a city is 1:1, developers can only put up a building with a gross floor area less than or equal to the total lot area. While in some cases it may be possible to build a one-story building that covers the lot entirely, thus achieving an FSI of 1:1, developers typically construct buildings with a “footprint” or “plinth” that covers less than the whole lot, and so the structure has more than one story. For example, a developer could build a four-story building that covered 25 percent of the lot and still meet the FSI of 1:1. Other planning regulations include setbacks (minimum distances to the front, rear, and sides of a plot) and maximum building heights. Both are designed to protect adjacent properties and preserve access to sun, air, and open space (parks and plazas). Finally, plot coverage ratio regulations limit the total area of a plot that can be developed (World Bank 2013a). There is no such thing as an optimal FSI. The “right” FSI for a specific area depends on the existing spatial structure of the city, the street patterns and widths, the level of infrastructure (is there enough capacity to accommodate higher density, that is, higher FSIs?), and cultural and social factors (are skyscrapers acceptable?) (Bertaud 2004). Although these regulations exist for good reasons, they often have unintended consequences. If an area’s FSI is set far below the level at which investors might otherwise develop it, this repression of supply can push people into other areas, and the increased demand for those other areas can raise prices across the city (Annez and Linn 2010). Similarly, if the FSI is a uniform limit, it may increase housing prices by limiting the supply of land that would otherwise be built up. It may also encourage the allocation of land and buildings to less productive uses. Beyond slowing city growth in these ways, a uniform limit can also push poor households to distant suburbs, adding to their poverty by increasing their commuting costs and times. When households have no choice but to locate near jobs, they often join hazard-prone informal settlements. Consider South Africa, where the government has focused on provision of subsidized housing, first introduced as part of the Reconstruction and Development Program. The benefits of the program have been questioned, however. The most common complaint is that households receiving the subsidized housing are not satisfied, because the housing is often far from employment centers; the new houses were often built in the “old” apartheid locations (which were deliberately sited far from urban centers and white neighborhoods). In addition, most households do not receive title deeds immediately but are allocated the housing administratively; whether they receive title right away or not, households are barred from selling or renting for a period of five years. Furthermore, even after the five-year period, the government has a preemptive right (the right of first refusal) on the sale of the property. In short, poor location and lack of fully tradable property rights are often cited as reasons for the limited impact of the subsidized housing.
GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 URBANIZATION AND THE MDGS 139 Integrate land management with infrastructure A central problem of urban planning is that of matching land use and infrastructure for the best possible outcome. Higher densities generate a greater need for infrastructure services (electricity, water, sewerage). But they also support environmental sustainability because they are better suited to public transport. To be sure, density must not overwhelm infrastructure. Yet it is equally important not to underuse infrastructure, imposing lowdensity caps where infrastructure can support higher ones. To see what is at stake, compare Manhattan, New York City’s archetypal borough, with Mumbai (map 3.2). Manhattan’s density zones are typically small. Its restrictions on land use vary with street width and capacity, with infrastructure capacity, and with historical land use patterns (commercial office districts typically have higher FSIs than residential districts). This granularity helps to make Manhattan a good example of integration between land use and infrastructure. In contrast, Mumbai’s density zones are large and uniform across much of the city, and densities are generally low. India’s urban planners justify such low formal densities as necessary to avoid overburdening existing infrastructure, which is severely limited. Rather than increase formal or planned densities, they have tried to preserve urban areas MAP 3.2 New York’s density management is granular and integrated with infrastructure while Mumbai’s is coarse and uncoordinated FSI variations in Manhattan’s zoning Parks FSI variations 0–2 2–3 3–5 5–6 6–8 8–9 9–11 11–12 12–14 14–15 Nariman point current CBD with highest land values Map of maximum allowed FAR values in Mumbai –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 kilometers kilometers Sources: New York City Planning Department 2011 (left); Bertaud 2004 (right). Note: In some zones, the floor space index (FSI) might be increased up to two additional units because of bonuses due to plaza, arcades, and the like. In some areas, the permitted FSI might not be reached because of setbacks and plot geometry.
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Global Monitoring Report 2013 Rural
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© 2013 International Bank for Reco
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vi CONTENTS GLOBAL MONITORING REPOR
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viii CONTENTS GLOBAL MONITORING REP
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Foreword Global Monitoring Report (
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Acknowledgments This report has bee
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Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asia
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GMR 2013 Rural-Urban Dynamics and t
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4 OVERVIEW GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT
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10 OVERVIEW GLOBAL MONITORING REPOR
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Goals and Targets from the Millenni
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Progress toward the MDGs Only two y
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primary completion, and access to s
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FIGURE 1a Poverty rates (living on
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MDG 2 Achieve universal primary edu
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MDG 3 Promote gender equality and e
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MDG 4 Reduce child mortality In mos
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MDG 5 Reduce maternal mortality MDG
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MDG 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and
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FIGURE 6e Children under age 5 who
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FIGURE 7b Access to sanitation by r
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Improving the measurement of develo
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1 Macroeconomic, Trade, and Aid Dev
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GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 MACRO
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2 Rural-Urban Disparities and Dynam
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