rural-urban dynamics_report.pdf - Khazar University

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150 URBANIZATION AND THE MDGS GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 costs? One reason is the use of smaller, older trucks on metropolitan routes. Another is the higher share of empty backhauls (truckers returning empty) on metropolitan routes. Finally, trucks on metropolitan routes clock about 25,000 kilometers annually, just a fourth of what they need to be economically viable. To improve coordination and reduce the cost of metropolitan freight movements, trucking firms could adopt logistics management systems; they could collaborate or consolidate with competitors; or they could form trucking associations. If India’s high freight costs are not reined in, then they will affect national economic development, as happened in Vietnam, which, like India, has large concentrations of economic activity in and around metropolitan areas. Alternatively, policy makers can identify possible transport cost reductions and connectivity gains that reflect the city’s desired mix of economic activities and extent of specialization. In Colombia, lowering transport costs along the country’s key trade corridors can enhance competitiveness for its cities and for the nation. For example, transporting freight by road from Bogotá to the Atlantic coast costs about $94 a ton while maritime transport from the Colombian coast to the United States costs about $75 a ton. High domestic transport costs undermine the competitiveness of goods produced in Colombia’s largest cities, especially compared with other large cities around the world. Reducing domestic transport costs by 12 percent could lead to an increase in exports of about 9 percent. For internal connections that link people with jobs, it is important to identify the problems: Are gridlock and lack of adequate public transport deterring residents from working outside their immediate neighborhoods (making labor markets inefficient)? Conversely, are long commuting times or high fares forcing residents to live in crowded slums so that they can walk to work? A city that faces one or both of these challenges needs a plan for a better transport system, including a desired mix of transportation modes. The plan must balance two main objectives: increasing the supply of affordable transport options and ensuring that congestion and pollution remain within acceptable limits. Coordinate among transport options and with land use As discussed earlier, policy makers must systematically coordinate transport plans with land use policies and related infrastructure plans. Although each situation is unique, it is important to ensure that transport options are consistent with affordability. In Uganda for example, public transport is unaffordable to many at current income levels. Household survey data suggest that 64 percent of urban dwellers walk to work, and the share is as high as 70 percent in Kampala (figure 3.6). As cities in Uganda expand their spatial footprints, lack of viable commuting alternatives to walking severely limits labor market opportunities for people who live further away from economic centers and may even exacerbate slum formation, because many people will trade off housing quality to be close to jobs. Typically, income determines transport choice. In Addis Ababa, 70 percent of trips are by walking, with an average distance walked of 5 kilometers; public transport is estimated to cost 3–37 percent of household income. In Nairobi, 48 percent of trips are by walking or other forms of nonmotorized transport, and the average trip is 4 kilometers; the poor pay 34 percent of their income on transport. And in Dar es Salaam, the average distance walked is 2.2 kilometers and the share of nonmotorized transport is 45 percent, with transport expenditures for the poor accounting for 53 percent of income (World Bank 2013a). These patterns are typical throughout Africa. Another challenge here is that although most (poor) people walk, hardly any facilities and safety standards are available to protect pedestrian road users. Improving sidewalks, streetlights, and other measures to protect pedestrian users should be important in an urban transport strategy. Despite the challenges, policy makers can encourage the use of public transport and increase the geographic scope of the labor market. In Brazil, for example, the
GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 URBANIZATION AND THE MDGS 151 FIGURE 3.6 Modes for commuting to work in Uganda’s urban areas a. All urban areas 2.6 b. Kampala 9.2 19.2 5.9 5.4 14.6 8.6 64.3 70.3 Taxi/car Bus/van Walking Boda-boda Other Sources: Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2010; World Bank 2013a. Note: A boda-boda is a bicycle taxi. government requires formal sector employers to provide transit tickets to their employees through a system called vale transporte (VT); firms then deduct the VT expenditures from taxable income. Although it applies only to the formal sector, the VT system effectively spreads the cost of transport subsidies between employers and the government. In most rapidly growing cities, a useful mobility plan needs to make way for multiple options for shared travel. Metro rail systems and bus systems are the most common among them. There may also be multiple operators managing each of these systems. It is important that these are well coordinated and feed into each other rather than duplicate each other. Therefore, an important regulatory role will be to coordinate service planning. Leverage investments that will yield the highest returns for cities collectively and individually National leaders must identify the most efficient investments in connections among all the cities and rural areas in a country. Where is demand for the expansion of intercity and regional infrastructure and transport services highest? Which corridors are identified through spatial analysis and simulations as most central to the network, so that improvements to them will yield the highest returns for efficiency and equity? Similarly, leaders must find ways to make transport within cities affordable while limiting congestion and pollution. This challenge is particularly important for infrastructure such as roads, where user charges alone cannot recover costs (box 3.7). Investments to increase capacity should be combined and aligned with other policies. Targeted subsidies, though not effective for all purposes or in all contexts, can sometimes be used to make transport more efficient as well as more equitable and safer for the environment. And other fiscal and regulatory tools can be used to manage demand for particular transport modes. Financing cities Having identified priorities for planning and connecting, policy makers confront the problem of financing those investments. The main difficulty is the need for money up front. Large capital outlays are needed to provide infrastructure and services, especially those that are not fully in demand now but will become so as urbanization picks up speed (Mohan 2009). The large capital investments that are needed in the construction phase, whether for transport, water provision, solid
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Global Monitoring Report 2013 Rural
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© 2013 International Bank for Reco
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vi CONTENTS GLOBAL MONITORING REPOR
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viii CONTENTS GLOBAL MONITORING REP
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Foreword Global Monitoring Report (
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Acknowledgments This report has bee
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Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asia
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GMR 2013 Rural-Urban Dynamics and t
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4 OVERVIEW GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT
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10 OVERVIEW GLOBAL MONITORING REPOR
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Goals and Targets from the Millenni
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Progress toward the MDGs Only two y
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primary completion, and access to s
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FIGURE 1a Poverty rates (living on
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MDG 2 Achieve universal primary edu
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MDG 3 Promote gender equality and e
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MDG 4 Reduce child mortality In mos
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MDG 5 Reduce maternal mortality MDG
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MDG 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and
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FIGURE 6e Children under age 5 who
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FIGURE 7b Access to sanitation by r
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Improving the measurement of develo
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1 Macroeconomic, Trade, and Aid Dev
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GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 MACRO
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2 Rural-Urban Disparities and Dynam
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GLOBAL MONITORING REPORT 2013 RURAL
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