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Competences for green development and leapfrogging 251 by using general science and innovation indicators on the one hand, and survey data from WEF (2006) on the other. However, the results depend on the analytical framework of these approaches, and must be cautiously interpreted. 2. Publication indicators are an intermediate output indicator for measuring the capability related to scientific output. Publications covered by the Science Citation Index (SCI) in the field of environmental engineering are used in order to measure the capabilities of NICs with regard to sustainability innovations. It has to be acknowledged that—compared to the natural and social sciences— publications are seen as a less reliable indicator for measuring the scientific output of engineers. Nevertheless, they provide a good data source for changes in the development over time. 3. Patents are among the most used indicators in innovation research. They belong also to the intermediate output indicators of knowledge build up, but are more directly related to technological capabilities than scientific literature. The analysis in this paper primarily draws on patent applications at the World Intellectual Property Organization and thus transnational patents (for the concept see Walz et al. 2008 and Frietsch and Schmoch 2010). In this way, a method of mapping international patents is employed which does not target individual markets such as Europe but is much more transnational in character. The NICs' patents identified in this way reveal those segments in which patent applicants are already taking a broader international perspective. In this paper, the years 2002–2006 were chosen as the period of study so that a statistically more reliable population is achieved in which chance fluctuations in individual years are evened out. 4. International trade figures indicate the degree to which a country is able to compete internationally. As argued in Section 2.1, the competitiveness with regard to technology intensive goods is influenced by the technological capabilities of the countries. Sustainability innovations mostly fall into the category of sectors which are classified as medium-high-technologies industries. Thus, trade figures for these technologies also indicate the degree of technological capabilities. The database UN-COMTRADE is referred to for trade figures. It is not limited to trade with OECD countries, but also covers South-South trade relations. In addition, the classification of the technologies is using the Harmonized System (HS) 2002. This foreign trade classification allows more disaggregation and therefore a better targeting of the sustainability technologies compared with the older classifications common in international comparisons (Standard International Trade Classification SITC). The latest year available for the analysis was 2006. For patents, literature publications, and world trade, the share of the NICs at the world total was calculated (literature share, patent share, world export share). Furthermore, specialization indicators (relative patent advantage (RPA); relative literature advantage (RLA), relative export activity (RXA) and revealed comparative advantage (RCA) were calculated, in order to analyze whether or not the NICs specialize on the sustainability technologies: For every country i and every technology field j the Relative Patent Activity (RPA) " , , ! # P P P is calculated according to: RPAij ¼ 100» tanh ln pij pij pij pij The RLA and the RXA are calculated in a similar way as the RPA, by substituting patents (p) by literature publications (l) and exports (x) respectively. i j ij
252 R. Walz In addition to exports, which are the basis of the RXA, the RCA takes also the imports m into account and is calculated according to: " , , ! # X X RCAij ¼ 100» tanh ln xij mij All specialization indicators are normalized between +100 and–100 (see Grupp, 1998). Positive values indicate an above average specialization on the analyzed technologies, a negative value shows that the country is more specializing on other technologies. Sustainability technologies are neither a patent class nor a classification in the HS-2002 classification of the trade data from the UN-COMTRAD databank which can be easily detected. Thus, for each technology, it was necessary to identify the key technological concepts and segments. They were transformed into specific search concepts for the patent data and the trade data. This required an enormous amount of work and substantial engineering skills. Furthermore, there is a dual use problem of the identified segments. The data only indicates that there is a technological capability which could be used for sustainability—not necessarily that these technologies are already implemented in a way that the environmental burden is reduced. Thus, in order to reflect that ambiguity, the term sustainability technology, which is used in the remainder of the text, has to be interpreted as sustainability relevant technology. 3 General framework conditions for innovations The quantitative data on innovation capacity give a first indication of the general conditions for innovation. Figure 2 indicates that the national R&D intensity or the share of the business expenditures on R&D of industry (BERD) is rather different for the NICs covered. It reaches from very small numbers, e.g. for Indonesia ID) or the Philippines (PH), to values typical for OECD countries, e.g. for Singapore (SG), Taiwan (TW), or South Korea (KR). Thus, there is considerable heterogeneity among the NICs. Among the NICs, particular interest is often put towards the so called BICS countries, that is Brazil (BR), India (IN), China (CN) and South Africa (ZA). The number for the BICS countries is around average for the analyzed NICs. However, China has increased the R&D expenditures lately, and runs ahead within BICS. Given the size of China, the volume of national R&D expenditure and BERD or the number of scientists is much higher in China than in the other BICS countries. Looking at specific numbers with regard to inhabitants, India clearly lacks behind the other BICS countries. A second approach for the analysis of the general framework conditions uses the survey data of the World Economic Forum (WEF 2006), which is based on expert opinions. In order to obtain an innovation system index, the indicators are classified into the categories human resources, technological absorption, innovation capacity and innovation friendliness of regulation. For this index, 56 countries are taken into account, comprising OECD countries as well as NICs and a few developing countries for which the indivcator values are available. The indicator values are j xij j mij
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Int Econ Econ Policy (2010) 7:147-1
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154 P.J.J. Welfens et al. Keywords
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184 P.J.J. Welfens et al. Reference
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Sustainability economics, resource
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Page 97 and 98: 246 R. Walz 1 Introduction Competen
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344 C. Lutz 1 Introduction This cha
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346 C. Lutz The scenario analysis a
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348 C. Lutz is designed to reduce g
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350 C. Lutz 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 C
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352 C. Lutz Table 2 EU27 productivi
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354 C. Lutz material-intensive to l
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356 C. Lutz Giljum S, Behrens A, Hi
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358 T. Machiba While industries are
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360 T. Machiba Field Target Technol
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362 T. Machiba 3 Understanding sust
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364 T. Machiba The automotive and t
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366 T. Machiba Air conditioners fun
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368 T. Machiba Table 2 Application
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370 T. Machiba Charter M, Clark T (
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