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272 P. Ekins COUNTRIES SECTORS SUPPLY CHAIN FIRMS PROCESSES PRODUCTS PROCESSES FUNCTIONALITIES Energy Warmth (space, water) Transport Light Power (for other services) Nutrition Water Flushing Washing Cooking/drinking Shelter Furnishing Tourism Fig. 3 The delivery of functionality in an economy. Source: Huppes et al. 2008, p.53 For example, in the case of transport, the unit of functionality may be (vehicle-km), and the cost to the owner will be the life-cycle cost of acquiring, operating and disposing of the vehicle over the period of ownership. However, it should be borne in mind that many products have multiple functionalities, so that in comparing the functionalities of different products, one must be careful to compare like with like. For example, cars have many functionalities apart from the delivery of vehicle-km (an obvious one is conferring status, or making a social statement), so that it is important when comparing products like cars that they are as similar as possible in terms of other functionalities. The ‘ecoinnovative product or process’ will then be one which delivers greater functionality per unit cost and improves environmental performance. Products and processes are produced or operated by firms. Clearly a firm may have different products and processes, delivering different functionalities, so a complete view of its performance will require some aggregation across these different outputs. Normally this aggregate is expressed in money terms, so that measures of a firm’s performance will often be some measure of economic (money) output compared with economic inputs (e.g. value added, profitability, labour productivity), sometimes compared with other firms (e.g. market share). The ‘ecoinnovative firm’ will then be one which improves its economic performance while also improving its environmental performance. Firms are conventionally grouped into economic sectors, obviously introducing a higher level of aggregation. Many of the measures of sectoral economic performance are the same as for firms and will consist of an aggregate, or average, of the sectors’ firms’ performance. And then sectors are aggregated into national economic statistics. One critical issue in the consideration of economic performance is time. Economies are inherently dynamic, and the consideration of timescale will be Etc. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Depletion, Pollution (air, water, land), Occupation (space, biodiversity)
Eco-innovation for environmental sustainability 273 crucially important to a judgement as to whether or not economic performance has improved. Many new technologies, and new firms, are not ‘economic’ to begin with (i.e. they deliver lower functionality per unit cost than incumbents). There is always a risk in investment that it will not pay off, and different investments pay off, when they do, over different periods of time. In any evaluation of economic performance, the timescale over which the evaluation has been conducted should therefore be made explicit. An example may be renewable energy, and the ‘feed-in’ tariffs which a number of countries have introduced to promote it. At present most such energy is not economic (i.e. it is more expensive per kWh delivered than a non-renewable alternative). That is why it needs the subsidy of a feed-in tariff. In the short term, therefore, it does not deliver enhanced economic performance and therefore, despite its enhanced environmental performance, it is an environmental innovation, rather than an eco-innovation, as the terms are used here. However, this situation may change. Mass deployment of renewable energy technologies through feed-in tariffs may engender learning by doing or economies of scale, reducing unit costs (see Fig. 9 below for PV). The costs of competitors (e.g. the price of fossil fuels) may rise. Other countries may decide to deploy these technologies, generating export markets. All these developments are likely to take time. Provided that economic performance is computed over that time, it may well be that an environmentally-improving new technology (i.e. an environmental innovation) which in the short term was an economic cost actually turns out to deliver enhanced economic performance, and therefore to be an eco-innovation. For any product or process which delivers improved environmental performance, there are therefore three possibilities: ○ It immediately delivers improved economic performance as well (e.g. compact fluorescent light bulbs, some home insulation), in which case it is unequivocally an eco-innovation ○ It does not deliver immediately improved economic performance, in which case it is only a potential eco-innovation which & Becomes an actual eco-innovation when its economic performance improves and it is widely taken up (a process which may take decades or even centuries) & Never becomes an eco-innovation because its economic performance never improves adequately The boundary within which economic performance is considered is also a relevant consideration. For example, although the feed-tariff is currently a net economic cost for the German economy as a whole (because the energy produced is more expensive than non-renewable energy), for the producers of renewable energy it may result in highly profitable businesses. If the boundary of the calculation of ‘economic performance’ is just those businesses, clearly the economic performance picture will be positive. If it is the national economy, and the German renewable energy businesses are focused on the German market, a different picture will emerge, and the overall change in economic performance may be negative. If, again, the German renewable energy industries generate significant exports, this may make their overall effect on the German economy positive.
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