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276 P. Ekins B. Cleaner technologies and products group: Activities which improve, reduce or eliminate environmental impact of technologies, processes and products (e.g. fuel-cell vehicles) C. Resource management group: Prime purpose of activities is not environmental protection but resource efficiency and development of new environmentally preferable resources (e.g. energy saving, renewable energy plant) A specific feature of environmental technology is the particular mechanism by which the environmental impact is reduced. The following types are often distinguished: & ‘End-of-pipe’ technology (isolating or neutralizing polluting substances after they have been formed). End-of-pipe technology is often seen as undesirable because it may lead to waste that has to be disposed of. 7 & ‘Process-integrated’ technology, also known as ‘integrated’ or ‘clean’ technology. This is a general term for changes in processes and production methods (i.e. making things differently) that lead to less pollution, resource and/ or energy use. & Product innovations, in which (final) products are developed or (re)designed that contain less harmful substances (i.e. making different things), use less energy, produce less waste, etcetera. Eco-industrial activities have been distributed across many industrial sectors for a number of years. For example, OECD/Eurostat 1999 (Annex 6) showed that in 1992 the environment industry in Germany was significant (in descending order of importance) in the following standard sectors: machinery, instruments and machinery, ceramics, electronics, fabricated metal products, plastics, rubber, textiles, non-metallic mineral products, vehicles, chemicals, pulp and paper, and iron, steel and metals. 4.1 The eco-industries in the European Union Following the recommendations of the environment industry working group, national statistical classification systems are being revised to include separate items for the environment industry. In the future, this will allow for easier identification and analysis of this cross-cutting industry. Because of the difficulties involved in classifying the environment industry, only a very limited amount of data on the size of this industry can be retrieved from standard national statistical sources. In recognition of this data gap the European Commission (DG Environment) published a comprehensive study: ‘Eco-industry, its size, employment, perspectives and barriers to growth in an enlarged EU’ (EC 2006). The study is based on data on environmental protection expenditures provided by Eurostat and a number of interviews with representatives of the industry and administration. Jänicke and Zieschank (2010, forthcoming) are among those who have stressed the unsatisfactory nature of current statistical classifications of the 7 This is not necessarily the case, though. For example, reducing nitrogen oxides at the end of a smokestack or car exhaust produces the harmless substances nitrogen and oxygen, which are natural components of the air (although even then particles from the platinum catalyst from the vehicle’s catalytic converter may cause pollution).
Eco-innovation for environmental sustainability 277 sustainable resource management and environment industries, which tend greatly to underestimate the industries’ quantitative significance, and the following numbers need to be interpreted in that light. The estimated total turnover of eco-industries in 2004 in the EU-25 is €227 billion (Fig. 5). The largest eco-industries are solid waste management and wastewater treatment (both around €52 bio.) and water supply (€45 bio.). The countries with the largest eco-industry sectors are Germany (€66.1 bio.) and France (€45.9 bio.), followed by the UK (€21.2 bio.) and Italy (€19.2 bio.). Pollution management activities make up 64% of total turnover in 2004, resource management activities account for the remaining 36%. Figure 6 shows the split between pollution and resource management activities for the EU-25 countries. Germany and France together account for roughly half of both pollution and resource management activities. In the UK a higher proportion of activities fall into the resource management category, 11.2% versus 8.4% pollution management activities. Across the EU-15 the eco-industry grew by around 7% (constant €) from 1999– 2004 (DG Environment 2006, p.33), although the growth rates for different EU countries vary widely. Around 3.4 million jobs (full-time equivalent, direct and indirect employment) are attributed to the eco-industries, over two-thirds of which fall into the pollution management category. Figure 7 shows the distribution of employment across the sectors. The three largest employers are the solid waste management sector accounting for just over 1 million jobs, followed by wastewater treatment (800 thousand) and the water supply sector (500 thousand). million 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 solid waste management Source: EC 2006 waste water treatment water supply recycled materials air pollution control Fig. 5 Eco-industry turnover in 2004, EU-25 general public admin renewable energy private env management nature protection remediation & clean up noise & vibration environm. R&D
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344 C. Lutz 1 Introduction This cha
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358 T. Machiba While industries are
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370 T. Machiba Charter M, Clark T (
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