The international economics of resources and resource ... - Index of

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International economics of resource productivity... 233 An average European uses about four times more resources per capita than inhabitants of Africa and three times more than in Asia. The level and patterns of resource use differ across countries. With an average of roughly 15 tons per capita according to the most commonly used indicator ‚Direct Material Input’, residents of the EU-27 use about half the resources compared to citizens of Australia, Canada and the United States, but about 25 % more than Japan and Switzerland. Within the EU-15 per capita consumption varies between 45t per capita (Finland) and 14t per capita (Italy) – a significant difference. Highly uneven patterns are also to be found in Asia. While a Bangladeshi consumes around 1,2 t of materials every year, resource use is at the order of 45 t per capita in small and rich oil-exporting countries such as Bahrain. China is currently estimated to consume materials in the order of 6,5 t per capita. In many medium and high-income countries such as South Korea, Israel, or Saudi Arabia, annual consumption is in the order of 15 t / per capita, only slightly lower than the OECD average (Giljum et al. 2010: 3). It is interesting to note that some large economies experienced a modest decrease in the direct use of resources between 1992 and 2005. These include Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic and Sweden. It is also worth noting that Japan experienced the highest (22%) reduction in resource use per capita. Norway, Canada and Switzerland also reduced their figures from 1992 to 2005. 3 Measurement of resources: Material Flow Analysis Material Flow Analysis (MFA) was created a few years ago to analyse the use of natural resources in societies (Fig. 2). It measures and analyses the flow of materials, energy and water across the system boundaries between the natural environment and the human sphere. It is associated with concepts such as ‘industrial ecology’ and Fig. 2 Economy-wide material balance scheme
234 R. Bleischwitz the ‘socio-industrial metabolisms’. Integrating the stages of production, consumption and recycling, it goes beyond traditional resource economics and offers a comprehensive perspective for resource policy. Since Eurostat (2004) and OECD (2008) (Fig.2) have provided handbooks on the measurement of material flows, and do in fact promote the collection of data and use of MFA concepts, there are many opportunities for international economics and economic policy to integrate MFA into their models and empirical analysis. Direct Material Input (DMI) measures the input of materials that are used in the economy, that is, domestic extraction used (DEU) plus physical imports. Direct material consumption (DMC) accounts for all materials used by a country and is defined as all materials entering the national economy (used domestic extraction plus imports=DMI) minus the materials that are exported. In economic terms, DMC reflects consumption by the residents of a national economy. In contrast, the Total Material Requirements (TMR) and Total Material Consumption (TMC) also account for the indirect resource use that is associated with producing goods for a certain economy including their ‘ecological rucksacks’ that account for the unused earth masses moved during extraction and production processes. Both the European Commission and OECD aim at integrating the more inclusive indicator TMR/TMC in their accounting schemes and headline indicators. Sustainability research has revealed that measuring the material flows can also account for main environmental pressures, in particular for generic pressures stemming from the system turnover related to the input side of economies. 5 4 General trends of resource productivity As a general trend, resource productivity 6 (GDP generated per ton of DMC) in Europe has improved – economies have been creating more value per ton of resources used. Material productivity in the EU-27 was highest in the United Kingdom, France, Malta, Italy, Belgium and Luxemburg, Germany and Sweden (in 2005). It was the lowest in countries such as Bulgaria, Romania, Estonia, Czech Republic and others. In total, the difference in performance across European economies mounts up to a factor of 17 between top performers and low performers Fig. 3 (Schepelmann et al. 2009). The large economies in this group have also experienced a fairly high increase in material productivity. All the remaining European countries were either around (the Netherlands and Austria) or below the EU-27 average of 1,700 USD/ton DMC. To put this into an international perspective: material productivity in Switzerland was 3000 USD/ton, in Japan 2600 USD/ton, and in Norway 2000 USD/ton (in the year 2005). The United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had lower material productivity than the EU-27 average - although higher than the average for the EU-12 group. The growth in material productivity was fastest in the new EU member states, ranging from more than 50% for Latvia, Poland and the Czech Republic to 122% for 5 Evidence from EU projects such as INDI-LINK, CALCAS, Sustainability A-Test, MATISSE, FORESCENE; see also Bringezu/Bleischwitz 2009, chapter 2. 6 We use the term material productivity if the denominator is DMC or DMI and resource productivity for the more inclusive measurement approaches with TMR/TMC and for general purposes.
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Int Econ Econ Policy (2010) 7:147-1
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The international economics of reso
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