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Competences for green development and leapfrogging 257 specialization in trade, the RXS was used. However, the overall picture does not change, if the RCA is used instead of the RXA. The results in Fig. 8 show considerable differences between the countries: & Brazil (BR), Malaysia (MY), Mexico (MX) and South Africa (ZA) are specializing on the sustainability technologies with regard to patenting. Thus, the build-up of knowledge in these countries is especially strong in the fields of sustainability technologies. & In China (CN), South Korea (KR) and Argentina (AR), the specialization indices show an average importance of the sustainability technologies for both patents and exports. & The negative specialization profiles for India (IN) and Singapore (SG) indicate that the catching-up process in these countries is taking place more strongly in fields which are not related to the sustainability technologies. 5 Disaggregated profile of technological capability in material efficiency Efficiency analyses and optimization approaches in companies very often concentrate on the cost factor of personnel costs. However the gross production costs in manufacturing contain alongside personnel costs also material and energy costs, depreciations and rents as well as other costs. There is an increasing public awareness of the significance of material efficiency. There are differing approaches what to include under the heading of resource or material efficiency. Within the context of the Material Efficiency and Resource Conservation Project (Maress), for example, Rohn et al. (2009) name 24 top technologies with a high potential of increasing resource efficiency. Some of these topics are rather disaggregated specific technologies which aim at increasing material efficient production (e.g. microreactors in chemical industry), enabling Specialisation Exports 100 0 sustainability technologies -100 -100 0 Specialisation Patents 100 Fig. 8 Specialization pattern of NICs for sustainability technologies. Source: Calculations of Fraunhofer ISI BR CN IN ZA KR SG MY MX Ar
258 R. Walz recycling (e.g. shiftable adhesives for better separability) or resource efficient products (e.g. fibre substitution in clothing). Other topics are less technology specific, but also point to reduce the material input in production or products (e.g. production on demand, resource efficient design, light construction). Finally, a third set of topics is defined more broadly towards resource efficiency and includes areas such as electric vehicles, traffic systems, use of membranes in water management, or energy production and energy storage. In this paper, the field of material efficiency is defined as in between a very narrow and very wide interpretation. On the one hand, it does not include the third set of the above mentioned Maress topics which relate to the energy, water and transportation sector. These technologies are dealt with in this paper under the headings of energy supply, transport or water technologies (see Section 2.1), but they are not part of the material efficiency technologies. On the other hand, the topic of material efficiency does not only comprise “material-efficient production processes” and “recycling” but also the technology segment “renewable raw materials”. Furthermore, the level of aggregation relates to technologies, which are in most cases not specific to a single sector. The segments covered by the subsector recycling include the detection, separation and sorting of waste and its material recycling. The subsector of material-efficient processes and products is based on the fundamental idea of designing products as environmentally-friendly as possible. It represents a compilation of different measures. These include technologies such as, e. g. lightweight construction, lifespan extension, fiber reinforcement or corrosion protection and also more recent service sector concepts (e. g. car sharing, print-on-demand). The subsector of material-efficient production processes also incorporates various sub-aspects such as optimizing the production processes (e. g. by reducing wastage or by standardizing quality), a better utilization of appliances, systems and specialized machinery or optimizations which affect the whole of the value added chain. However, there are difficulties here with specifying these concepts in the data, especially with regard to trade. Thus, the numbers only include part of the important technologies. Many industrial sectors have a long tradition of using renewable raw materials. In the past, products based on renewable materials were often displaced by fossil-based products (e. g. celluloid, linoleum). However, more and more attention is being paid to renewable-based products recently because of raw material and degradability considerations. Both chemical raw materials (e. g. sugars and starches, oils and fats) and products based on renewable raw materials (e. g. polymers, adhesives, varnishes, and coatings) should be listed here. The trade indicators for renewable materials comprise technologies to produce them and selected renewable raw materials. Thus, the trade indicator in this subsector has to be interpreted with caution because the numbers are influenced not only by technological capability but also resource availability. This limitation does not apply to the patents in this subsector. More fundamentally, the use of renewable raw materials has to be interpreted with caution with regard to its environmental effects. Even though renewable raw materials have not been debated as hotly as biofuels, the same fundamental problems—e.g. crowding out of food production, loss of biodiversity, use of pesticides or high virtual water content—have to be taken into account. Thus, renewable raw materials cannot be judged as environmentally friendly per se, but
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Sustainability economics, resource
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344 C. Lutz 1 Introduction This cha
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346 C. Lutz The scenario analysis a
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348 C. Lutz is designed to reduce g
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350 C. Lutz 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 C
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352 C. Lutz Table 2 EU27 productivi
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354 C. Lutz material-intensive to l
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356 C. Lutz Giljum S, Behrens A, Hi
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358 T. Machiba While industries are
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360 T. Machiba Field Target Technol
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362 T. Machiba 3 Understanding sust
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364 T. Machiba The automotive and t
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366 T. Machiba Air conditioners fun
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368 T. Machiba Table 2 Application
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370 T. Machiba Charter M, Clark T (
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