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310 R. Kemp liberal energy markets is not helpful to the energy transition process (Kern and Howlett 2009). In the eyes of the Dutch government, the energyapproachsofarisasuccess, by being able to exploit latent business interests in sustainable energy. Alternative energy (use) systems are worked at in a prudent manner through special learning projects and programmes. Policies for innovation are combined with policies to achieve immediate carbon reductions, through carbon trading, covenants about energy savings and a support scheme for sustainable energy production. The transition literature sparked a debate about possibilities for managing transitions and the DRIFT transition management model 11 . Smith et al. (2005) together with Jacob (2007) criticise the idea of transitions occurring through niche development processes, pointing to other pathways and the need for regime-changing policies to complement innovation support schemes. Shove and Walker (2007) are openly critical of the “transition through modernisation” idea and transition management approach. They doubt the ability of societies to transform themselves and criticise the central role given to technical change in societal transitions (arguing that culture and social practices have been neglected). Transition management is also criticised for being an elitist and technocratic approach of modernisation (Hendriks 2008; see also Smith and Kern 2007) for the reason that none of the platforms is democratically chosen and the public not really being involved. They say the process is dominated by regime actors. Meadowcroft (2009) questions the possibility for achieving closure through willful transition policies, saying that transitions are messy and open processes. At a workshop in Germany where I presented the Dutch transition approach, the approach was criticized for not delivering much on renewable energy and greenhouse gas reductions. It is true that The Netherlands have been underachieving in terms of renewable energy and CO2 emission reduction. The share of renewable electricity in the Netherlands (9% in 2010) is far below the European average of 22% for the EU15 and 21% for the EU27 (see Appendix II). CO2 levels have not fallen. In 2008 CO2 emissions were higher than in 2007. In terms of CO2 equivalents a 3% reduction has been achieved in greenhouse gas emissions, which is half of the 6% reduction that is required to achieve according to the Kyoto protocol. It is wrong to blame the Dutch energy transition approach for this as it is just one element of sustainable energy policy. The transition approach is an approach for achieving long-term benefits, not short-term reductions in CO2. One may question whether a broad portfolio is not too broad. A broad portfolio may be something for a big country such as Germany and not something for a small country with limited resources. The dominance of incumbents has been acknowledged by Hugo Brouwer, the director of the energy transition process but no steps have been undertaken against this. 11 In Kemp (2009) the various criticisms leveled against transition management are discussed more extensively.
The Dutch energy transition approach 311 Germany moved much further into the direction of a low-carbon economy than the Netherlands. But this owed more to political circumstances: the willingness to stimulate renewable energy. The German experience shows that market pull can stimulate not only diffusion but also innovation. One important conclusion for policy is that for bringing about a transition something more is needed than innovation support. For instance for achieving a transition to a low-carbon economy, environmental taxes and other carbon reducing policies are needed, as pointed out by environmental economists such as Ekins and Bleischwitz. It was hoped by this author that the commitment to sustainability transitions helps to make such choices, but this did not happen. As countries are unlikely to unilaterally introduce carbon-restraining policies for economic fears, it is important to have international carbon-reducing policies. The European Emission Trading system is an important development in this respect. The Netherlands is relying on ETS and sectoral covenants for achieving reductions in greenhouse gas reductions. As an innovation support approach the Dutch transition management model is a sophisticated approach which fits with modern innovation system thinking which says that policy should be concerned with 1) management of interfaces, (2) organizing (innovation) systems, (3) providing a platform for learning and experimenting, (4) providing an infrastructure for strategic intelligence and (5) stimulating demand articulation, strategy and vision development (Smits and Kuhlman 2004; see also Grin and Grunwald 2000). By relying on adaptive portfolio’s two possible mistakes of sustainable energy policy possibly may be prevented, 1) the promotion of short-term options which comes from the use of technology-blind generic support policies such as carbon taxes or cap and trade systems (which despite being “technology-blind” are not technology neutral at all because they favour low-hanging fruit and regimepreserving change (Jacobsson et al. 2009), and 2) picking losers (technologies and system configurations which are suboptimal) through technology-specific policies. Here we should add to say that there are good reasons for relying on market-based instruments (to achieve carbon reductions at a low cost) and for engaging in technology-support but that a combination of such policies is desirable. When engaging in technology specific support policies one task for policy is to not fall prey to special interests, hypes and undue criticisms. The support given to the first generation biofuels turned out to be wrong. The philosophy of guided evolution used in the Netherlands appears a good one as the transition to a lowcarbon economy really consists of two challenges: to reduce carbon emissions and to contain the side-effects of low-carbon energy technologies, whether nuclear, wind power, or systems of carbon capturing and sequestering. All new energy technologies come with specific dangers and hazards, which have to be anticipated and addressed. For sustainable energy there are no technical fixes, nor are there perfect instruments. There is a need for policy to be more concerned with system change. The capacity to do so has to be created. It can be created in different ways. The Dutch model described in this article is one possible way. It is not a substitute for control policies such as environmental taxes and regulations, which remain necessary.
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