Human Development Report 2013 - UNDP

ecause trading blocs consist ofgeographical neighbours. Sincethese countries would be naturaltrading partners even without specialarrangements, the losses from tradediversion are small, while gains fromtrade creation are large.7 Multilateralizing regionalism alsorequires harmonizing a diverse arrayof trade regulations (such as varyingrules of origin for determining localcontent) and expanding regionalagreements to include as many developingcountry partners as possible.These ideas draw on Baldwin (2007).8 The International Organization forMigration, not a part of the UNsystem, has the broadest mandate formigration issues of any internationalinstitution. With 146 memberstates, it has become an increasinglyprominent forum for discussions oninternational migration.9 UNDP 2009.10 Hansen 2010.11 Betts and others 2013.12 King, Richards and Tyldesley 2011.13 UNDP 2011a.14 Han 2012.15 Leape 2012.16 Leape 2012.17 Romero and Broder 2012.18 Glennie 2011.19 OECD 2011c.20 G8 2005.21 Ocampo 2010.22 General Assembly addresses by headsof government Sept. 25-Oct.1 (UNNews Service www.un.org/news/).23 At the Group of 20 Summit in LosCabos in 2012, Brazil, China, India,the Russian Federation and SouthAfrica announced contributions of$75 billion towards InternationalMonetary Fund resources. Thesefunds come with several conditions.They can be called upon only afterexisting resources are substantiallyused. The money was also given inanticipation that “all the reformsagreed upon in 2010 will be fullyimplemented in a timely manner,including a comprehensive reformof voting power and reform of quotashares” (Chowla 2012).24 Heller 2013.25 The video received more than 100 millionviews and is one of the most“viral” videos of all time.26 Chandhoke 2009; Heller 2013.27 This takes many forms— restrictivenongovernmental organizationlaws, foreign currency and taxationregulations, registration requirementsand the like—and is justifiedby governments on grounds such asnational security, accounting failuresby nongovernmental organizations,coordination and control, amongothers. The International Center forNon-profit Law and CIVICUS haveconsistently been reporting on andanalyzing this situation worldwide.28 Castells 2003; Burawoy 2003.29 British political theorist AndrewDobson developed the idea of an“ecological citizenship”. Thinkingecologically implies a broad notionof citizenship, one that includes thegoal of reducing ecologic footprints.Ecological citizenship goes beyondindividual responsibility, sinceecological thinking views citizens asproducts of and influences on theircommunities (and their ecosystems)(Revkin 2012).30 Chorev 2012.31 Grabel 2013. For a useful summarysee also Lamberte and Morgan (2012).32 Reserve Bank of India 2012.33 Grabel 2013.34 Ocampo and Titelman 2009.35 Grabel 2013.36 The Bank of the South was foundedin 2007 by Venezuelan PresidentHugo Chavez and officially launchedin 2009. Initially envisaged with avery broad mission, by the time of itslaunch in 2009, its mandate had beennarrowed to project finance in theSouth American region (Chin 2010).Its precise functions and goals arestill being debated among membercountries.37 OECD 2010a.38 Baldwin 2006.39 See United Nations Security Council(2011), which contains the conceptnote on responsibility while protecting,as developed by the governmentof Brazil.40 India Ministry of External Affairs2012.41 Bhattacharya, Romani and Stern 2012.42 Bhattacharya, Romani and Stern 2012.43 HDRO calculations based on WorldBank (2012a) data on average spendingfor each country in the regionbetween 2005 and 2010.44 Based on HDRO calculations usingWorld Bank (2012a) data oninternational reserves. Given that internationalreserves play a prominentrole in monetary and exchange ratepolicy, it may be too ambitious toexpect a larger proportion of thereserves to be allocated for otherpurposes.45 Some have proposed a globalinfrastructure initiative whereby richcountries channel investment fundsto developing countries, generatinga greater return on investment thanthey could at home (Harding 2012).The same principle applies to investmentby emerging economies.46 Bolton, Samama and Stiglitz 2011.Norway has also offered $1 billionto Brazil for its deforestation efforts,albeit not through its sovereignwealth fund.47 Public-private partnerships andcommunity-level initiatives can alsohelp broaden the scope and impact ofsovereign wealth fund investments.48 See Hamdani (2013) and SouthCommission (1990).49 The South Commission was formallyestablished in 1987, following yearsof informal discussion among leadersfrom the South. The report of theSouth Commission (1990) emphasizedthat developing countries have manyproblems and much experience incommon. It found that the South isnot well organized at the global leveland has been unable to effectivelymobilize its combined expertise,experience and bargaining power.The report made practical suggestionsto be carried out by concernedpolicymakers.50 Mwase and Yang 2012.51 OECD 2010a.130 | HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2013