Human Development Report 2013 - UNDP

years, the problem has been exacerbated by BOX 1.6the spread and misuse of ultrasound technologiesthat enable parents to exercise age-oldpreferences for boys. The key driver, however,is the combination of patriarchal mores andgreater economic value of boys in the presenceof a dowry system. In absence of the latter—forinstance, in African countries—patriarchal prejudicesalone do not manifest in high male sexratio at birth.Redressing this imbalance will involve changingmany social norms, including those thataffect the economic incentives of the householdto have boys rather than girls. This wouldinclude effectively ending the exploitativedowry system, 39 generating greater economicopportunities for women, creating conditionsfor women to have greater control over theirlives and enhancing their political participationand decisionmaking within households.It has often been argued that improvingeducation for women helps raise their levelsof health and nutrition and reduces fertilityrates. 40 Thus, in addition to its intrinsic valuein expanding women’s choices, educationalso has an instrumental value in enhancinghealth and fertility outcomes of women andchildren. In this respect, low and mediumHDI countries still have some way to go.There was also a gender imbalance among theuneducated population in high and very highHDI countries in 1970–2010, although therewas substantially more gender balance at alleducation levels in these countries for girlsand young women currently of school attendanceage.Important as education and job creationfor women are, they are not enough. Standardpolicies to enhance women’s income do nottake into account gender differences withinhouseholds, women’s greater burden ofunpaid work and gender division of workas per cultural norms. Policies based on economictheory that does not take these factorsinto account may have adverse impacts onwomen, even though they create economicprosperity. 41 Key to improving gender equityare political and social reforms that enhancewomen’s human rights, including freedom,dignity, participation, autonomy and collectiveagency. 42Education quality: achievement on the Programme for International StudentAssessmentThe education component of the Human Development Index has two measures: mean yearsof schooling and expected years of schooling. But even more than years of schooling, qualityof education is a key factor in expanding human capabilities (see figure).The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Programme for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA) collects internationally compatible data on the educationalattainment of students and allows for cross-country comparison of average learning scores,share of low-performing schools and consistency of quality outcomes. For example, the advantagesof a highly educated labour force, which countries such as the United States havetraditionally had, appear to be eroding as young cohorts in other countries (such as Ireland,Japan and the Republic of Korea) reach and surpass the qualifications found in the UnitedStates.In the most recent PISA, conducted in 63 countries and territories in 2009, many countriesshowed impressive strides in quality of learning outcomes. Students from Shanghai,China, outperformed students from 62 countries in reading, mathematics and science skills.They were followed by students from the Republic of Korea, Finland and Hong Kong, China(SAR) in reading; Singapore, Hong Kong, China (SAR) and the Republic of Korea in mathematics;and Finland, Hong Kong, China (SAR) and Singapore in science. The United Statesperformed below average in mathematics, sharing 29th place with Ireland and Portugal;slightly above average in science, in 21st place; and above average in reading, sharing 15thplace with Iceland and Poland. Brazil, Chile, Indonesia and Peru have seen impressive gains,catching up from very low levels of performance. Investments by some countries in educationquality will likely bring future payoffs in a more knowledge-driven globalized world.Programme for International Student Assessment scores in reading positivelycorrelate with HDI valuesReading score, 20096005004003002000.6 0.7 0.8 0.9Non-OECDSource: HDI values, HDRO calculations; Programme for International Student Assessment scores, OECD (2010b).HDI, 2012OECDChapter 1 The state of human development | 33