the-evolution-of-international-security-studies

structural violence, economics and the environment 1271973: 5). Kenneth E. Boulding held that there ‘was the feeling, certainly inthe 1960s and early 1970s, that nuclear deterrence was actually succeedingas deterrence and that the problem of nuclear war had receded into thebackground’ (Boulding, 1978: 346; Lopez, 1985: 125). With the electionof Ronald Reagan in 1980 and the Second Cold War of the 1980s, the relativebalance between military and development issues shifted back againin the direction of the former (Gleditsch, 1989: 3; Rogers, 2007: 44), andThird World countries were pushed towards the adoption of Liberal policieswhich ‘emphasized the role of free market forces and the downsizingof state bureaucracies and state regulations’ (Jackson and Sørensen, 1999:201).The broadening and deepening of the Peace Research agenda in the late1960s and 1970s, and in particular the form that this took, was also influencedby the way in which events interacted with the internal dynamicsof academic debates. The import of Marxist economic theory was in partattributable to a general wave of Marxist and post-Marxist theory in thesocial sciences in Western Europe in the wake of student radicalism in thelate 1960s (Gleditsch, 1989: 2). Scandinavian and especially West GermanPeace Researchers drew on the older Frankfurt School theorists Adorno,Horkheimer and Marcuse in pointing to the alienation and manipulationof citizens in late-modern Western societies, and, younger ‘radical’Peace Researchers went further back to classical Marxists and Leninistwritings (Gleditsch, 2004: 17). The older Frankfurt School held a ratherpessimistic view of the possibility of genuine democracy and popularresistance to the machinations of political, financial and cultural elites,whereas the younger Frankfurt School, represented by Habermas, allowedfor a more positive view of civil society, of the so-called ‘life world’s’ abilityto resist systemic interests and of the possibility of emancipation.The more pessimistic and radical branch of Neo-Marxist theory was thestronger influence on 1970s Peace Research, whereas it was Habermas’stheory that informed early Poststructuralist writings (Ashley, 1981) andlater Critical Security Studies (see chapter 7), which singled out ‘emancipation’as its core parallel concept (Alker, 1988; Booth, 1991, 1997, 2005a;Wyn Jones, 1995, 1999, 2005).During the 1980s, Peace Research becomes gradually more specialised(Wiberg, 1981; Gleditsch, 1989: 2) and less is published on ‘pure’ economicand development issues in key journals such as the Journal of PeaceResearch. There is a growing division of labour between Peace Researchand Development Studies as the latter becomes a distinct specialism, anda bigger differentiation between the sub-disciplines of IR and IPE. Peace