the-evolution-of-international-security-studies

208 widening and deepening securityout, ‘Adorno and Horkheimer cannot point to any concrete examples ofwhat types of institutions and relationships might characterize a moreemancipated society’, and later theorists have not come much further interms of defining the steps towards an emancipated society, nor what itwould ultimately look like.FeminismFeminist Security Studies, to a greater extent than the other widening–deepening perspectives covered in this chapter, comprises sub-approacheswhich adopt different referent objects, epistemologies and methodologies.With the exception of traditional military-state centric approaches whichleave no room for gender and security, Feminist Security Studies can thusbe seen as a microcosm of ISS itself. The most significant questions on thepost-Cold War Feminist Security Studies agenda were: first, how to furtherdevelop the standpoint Feminist approach associated with J. Ann Ticknerand Cynthia Enloe presented in chapter 5, particularly how to tacklethe problems connected to its epistemology of experience; second, how tointegrate a new set of events; and third, how to respond to Constructivismand quantitative Feminism.The Tickner approach has been the most prevalent one within FeministSecurity Studies, in terms of which conceptualisation of securityis adopted and how it is introduced by most textbooks (Pettman, 2005;Kennedy-Pipe, 2007; Tickner and Sjoberg, 2007). This approach has muchin common with Critical Security Studies and Human Security in callingfor an expansion of the referent object to include ‘women’ and nonmilitarysecurity sectors (Hoogensen and Rottem, 2004; Hudson, 2005;Hoogensen and Stuvøy, 2006). In Tickner’s words, Feminists adopt ‘a multidimensional,multilevel approach’ committed to ‘emancipatory visionsof security’ that seek to ‘understand how the security of individuals andgroups is compromised by violence, both physical and structural, at alllevels’ (Tickner, 2001: 48). Feminist analysis has as a consequence ‘generallytaken a bottom-up approach, analyzing the impact of war at themicrolevel’ (Tickner, 2001: 48), deepened the referent object and widenedthe sectors to which security is applicable.Epistemologically, those working in the Tickner tradition have usuallyadopted ‘experiences’ as their key concept. The absence of women intraditional ISS approaches and the form that gender-specific threats towomen’s security take are closely connected to the fact that ‘[too] often,women’s experiences have been deemed trivial or only important in so far