the-evolution-of-international-security-studies

widening and deepening security 189in the extent to which they foregrounded and discussed the concept ofsecurity.The schools-driven character of widening–deepening post-Cold WarISS, shown in Figure 7.1, indicates that not only was there disagreementover whether and how security should be expanded, but also over whocounted as legitimate contestants on the ISS terrain. To take the example oftextbooks, whereas Kolodziej (2005) presents Wendtian Constructivismas the most radical challenger to the mainstream, it is given little noticein European textbooks like Collins (2007), Fierke (2007), Sheehan (2005)and Hough (2004), which are more concerned with Feminism, HumanSecurity, Critical Security Studies and the Copenhagen School. In fact,as this chapter will show, the European–US divide that had concernedpeace researchers worried about ‘the two cultures problem’ during theCold War was also prominent during the 1990s (Wæver, 2004a).This chapter looks primarily to those approaches that combined wideningand deepening. That part of the widening debate that consisted of thelargely empirical calls that gathered force during the 1970s and 1980sfor addressing economic and especially environmental issues as part ofinternational security has been noted in various chapters above (Nye,1974; Maull, 1975; Buzan, 1983; Ullman, 1983; Mayall, 1984; BrundtlandCommission, 1987; Nye and Lynn-Jones, 1988; Mathews, 1989; Nye, 1989;Deudney, 1990). From the late 1980s, widening and deepening mergedin the explicit debates on the concept of security that became prominentwithin ISS, and which opened the way for a much more thoroughdebate about this concept than had occurred during the Cold War (Buzan,1991a; Haftendorn, 1991; Dewitt, 1994; Baldwin, 1995, 1997; Cable, 1995;Caporaso, 1995; Rothschild, 1995; Wæver, 1995; Ayoob, 1997; Buzanet al., 1998; Smith, 1999; Walt, 1999a; Farrell, 2002). In this chapterwe look to the way in which schools deepened and widened security –or not – thus bringing in a wider agenda around economic, environmental,societal and regional security and a deepening of the referentobject beyond the state. Put simply, while there was an earlier literatureon, for instance, environmental security, there was not an environmentalsecurity school but rather different ways in which environmental securityappeared, or was excluded, by different approaches. On the subjectof widening, one should note also that to widen security is to considerspecific non-military sectoral dynamics as phenomena in their own right.To say, as did the founding editors of International Security (InternationalSecurity, 1976) for instance, that military force is impacted by economicfactors, energy supplies, food and natural resources, expands the list of