Callister - An introduction - 8th edition

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Chapter 10 Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties Pressure Solid (Ice) Two pressure-temperature phase diagrams are shown: for H 2 O (top) and CO 2 (bottom). Phase transformations occur, when phase boundaries (the red curves) on these plots are crossed as temperature and/or pressure is changed. For example, ice melts (transforms to liquid water) upon heating, which corresponds to crossing the solid-liquid phase boundary, Liquid (Water) as represented by the arrow on the H 2 O phase diagram. Similarly, upon passing across the solid-gas phase boundary of the CO 2 phase diagram, dry ice (solid CO 2 ) sublimes (transforms to gaseous CO 2 ). Again, an arrow delineates this phase transformation. (Melting ice: SuperStock; dry ice: Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.) Temperature Vapor (Steam) Solid Liquid Pressure Gas Temperature 342 •
WHY STUDY Phase Transformations? The development of a set of desirable mechanical characteristics for a material often results from a phase transformation that is wrought by a heat treatment. The time and temperature dependencies of some phase transformations are conveniently represented on modified phase diagrams. It is important to know how to use these diagrams in order to design a heat treatment for some alloy that will yield the desired room-temperature mechanical properties. For example, the tensile strength of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt% C) can be varied between approximately 700 MPa (100,000 psi) and 2000 MPa (300,000 psi) depending on the heat treatment employed. In the processing/structure/properties/performance scheme, reasons for studying phase transformations are as follows: • Heat treatments for metal alloys (as well as other materials) are designed on the basis of how temperature influences the rate at which phase transformations occur. In this chapter we explore the concept of transformation rate as well as its dependence on temperature. • For iron–carbon alloys, the development of microstructural elements other than pearlite (and a proeutectoid phase, as discussed in Chapter 9) are possible. These microstructures, their mechanical properties, and their structure-property correlations are given. Furthermore, discussions are provided that describe heat treatments that produce each of the microstructures. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following: 1. Make a schematic fraction transformationversus-logarithm of time plot for a typical solid–solid transformation; cite the equation that describes this behavior. 2. Briefly describe the microstructure for each of the following microconstituents that are found in steel alloys: fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, martensite, and tempered martensite. 3. Cite the general mechanical characteristics for each of the following microconstituents: fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, martensite, and tempered martensite. Now, in terms of microstructure (or crystal structure), briefly explain these behaviors. 4. Given the isothermal transformation (or continuous cooling transformation) diagram for some iron–carbon alloy, design a heat treatment that will produce a specified microstructure. 10.1 INTRODUCTION One reason metallic materials are so versatile is that their mechanical properties (strength, hardness, ductility, etc.) are subject to control and management over relatively large ranges. Three strengthening mechanisms were discussed in Chapter 7— namely grain size refinement, solid-solution strengthening, and strain hardening. Additional techniques are available wherein the mechanical behavior of a metal alloy is influenced by its microstructure. The development of microstructure in both single- and two-phase alloys ordinarily involves some type of phase transformation—an alteration in the number and/or character of the phases. The first portion of this chapter is devoted to a brief discussion of some of the basic principles relating to transformations involving solid phases. Inasmuch as most phase transformations do not occur instantaneously, transformation rate consideration is given to the dependence of reaction progress on time, or the transformation rate. This is followed by a discussion of the development of two-phase • 343
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Characteristics of Selected Element
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E IGHTH E DITION Materials Science
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Dedicated to our wives, Nancy and E
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viii • Preface FEATURES THAT ARE
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x • Preface 2. Answers to Concept
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Appreciation is expressed to those
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xiv • Contents 3. The Structure o
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xvi • Contents 9.12 Development o
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xviii • Contents 15.14 Factors Th
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xx • Contents 21.14 Optical Fiber
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xxii • List of Symbols HK Knoop
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Chapter 1 Introduction A familiar i
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1.2 Materials Science and Engineeri
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1.4 Classification of Materials •
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1.5 Advanced Materials • 11 aeros
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1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs • 1
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STEELS Processing Diffusion ➣ Rec
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Question • 17 REFERENCES Ashby, M
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WHY STUDY Atomic Structure and Inte
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2.3 Electrons in Atoms • 21 Orbit
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2.3 Electrons in Atoms • 23 Table
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2.3 Electrons in Atoms • 25 Table
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2.4 The Periodic Table • 27 Metal
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2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies •
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2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds • 3
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2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds • 3
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2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Wa
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2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Wa
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Summary • 39 Primary Interatomic
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Questions and Problems • 41 QUEST
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Questions and Problems • 43 Sprea
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WHY STUDY The Structure of Crystall
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lattice 3.4 Metallic Crystal Struct
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3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures •
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3.5 Density Computations • 51 EXA
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3.7 Crystal Systems • 53 Another
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3.8 Point Coordinates • 55 Concep
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3.9 Crystallographic Directions •
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3.10 Crystallographic Planes • 63
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3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structure
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3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structure
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3.15 Anisotropy • 73 (a) (b) grai
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3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determinati
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0° 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determi
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3.17 Noncrystalline Solids • 79 (
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Summary • 81 Point Coordinates Cr
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Processing/Structure/Properties/Per
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Questions and Problems • 85 118.7
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Questions and Problems • 89 Inten
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WHY STUDY Imperfections in Solids?
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self-interstitial increases exponen
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2. Crystal structure. For appreciab
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4.4 Specification of Composition
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4.5 Dislocations—Linear Defects
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4.5 Dislocations—Linear Defects
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4.6 Interfacial Defects • 103 Ang
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4.6 Interfacial Defects • 105 MAT
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the order of 10 13 vibrations per s
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4.10 Microscopic Techniques • 109
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4.10 Microscopic Techniques • 111
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4.11 GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION grain
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Summary • 115 Specification of Co
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Summary • 117 List of Symbols Sym
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Questions and Problems • 119 (a)
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Design Problems • 121 (a) at a ma
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WHY Study Diffusion? Materials of a
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5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms • 125 se
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5.3 Steady-State Diffusion • 127
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5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion • 1
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5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion • 1
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5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusio
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5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusio
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5.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Mat
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is only an approximation), then the
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5.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Mat
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Summary • 143 Diffusion in Semico
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Questions and Problems • 145 QUES
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Diffusion coefficient (m 2 /s) 10 -
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Design Problems • 149 the process
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WHY STUDY The Mechanical Properties
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6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain
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6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain
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6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior • 157
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6.4 Anelasticity • 159 Figure 6.8
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6.5 Elastic Properties Of Materials
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6.6 Tensile Properties • 163 Figu
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6.6 Tensile Properties • 165 in F
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6.6 Tensile Properties • 167 Brit
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6.6 Tensile Properties • 169 y F
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6.7 True Stress and Strain • 171
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6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsion
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Table 6.5 Hardness-Testing Techniqu
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Brinell Hardness Tests 15 6.10 Hard
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6.10 Hardness • 179 are contained
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6.11 Variability Of Material Proper
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6.12 Design/Safety Factors • 183
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Summary • 185 • For an isotropi
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Summary • 187 6.15 s T F True st
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Questions and Problems • 189 a lo
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Questions and Problems • 191 tens
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Questions and Problems • 193 modu
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Design Problems • 195 (a) Determi
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Chapter 7 Dislocations and Strength
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Dislocations and Plastic Deformatio
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7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations
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7.4 Slip Systems • 203 D B A (a)
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7.5 Slip in Single Crystals • 205
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7.5 Slip in Single Crystals • 207
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7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrys
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7.7 Deformation by Twinning • 211
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7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening
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7.10 Strain Hardening • 215 (a) (
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7.10 Strain Hardening • 217 600 2
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7.11 RECOVERY recovery 7.12 RECRYST
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7.12 Recrystallization • 221 (e)
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7.12 Recrystallization • 223 DESI
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Summary • 225 Figure 7.25 The log
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Summary • 227 Strain Hardening
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Questions and Problems • 229 Iron
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Questions and Problems • 231 and
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Design Problems • 233 Spreadsheet
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WHY STUDY Failure? The design of a
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8.3 Ductile Fracture • 237 Figure
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8.4 Brittle Fracture • 239 8.4 BR
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8.4 Brittle Fracture • 241 SEM Mi
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8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanic
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8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing •
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8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing •
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8.7 Cyclic Stresses • 255 Most ce
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8.8 The S-N Curve • 257 fatigue l
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8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagatio
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8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagatio
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8.10 Factors that Affect Fatigue Li
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8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior •
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8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects
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8.15 Alloys For High-Temperature Us
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Summary • 271 Ductile Fracture
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Summary • 273 • The presence of
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fatigue limit fatigue strength frac
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Questions and Problems • 277 Cycl
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Design Problems • 279 8.31 A cyli
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Chapter 9 Phase Diagrams The graph
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Definitions and Basic Concepts 9.2
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9.5 PHASE EQUILIBRIA equilibrium fr
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phases is along curve aO—likewise
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9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagram
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Page 347 and 348: The Iron-Carbon System 9.18 The Iro
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Page 407 and 408: 10.9 Review of Phase Transformation
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Page 415 and 416: Questions and Problems • 387 10.1
Page 417 and 418: Questions and Problems • 389 (c)
Page 419 and 420: Chapter 11 Applications and Process
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 393 Types o
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 395 Table 1
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 397 Table 1
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 399 is exte
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 401 (c) 20
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Table 11.5 Designations, Minimum Me
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11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 405 is pres
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11.3 Nonferrous Alloys • 407 Tabl
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Table 11.9 Compositions, Mechanical
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11.3 Nonferrous Alloys • 415 or n
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11.4 Forming Operations • 417 Met
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11.5 Casting • 419 that have rath
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11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques • 4
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11.7 Annealing Processes • 423 ox
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modification of mechanical properti
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11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels • 4
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11.9 Precipitation Hardening • 43
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Summary • 443 Forming Operations
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Summary • 445 PROCESSING Recrysta
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Questions and Problems • 447 REFE
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Design Problems • 449 and temperi
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Chapter 12 Structures and Propertie
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 453 Con
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 455 Tab
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 457 Fur
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 459 VMS
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 461 Tet
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12.2 Crystal Structures • 463 EXA
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12.3 Silicate Ceramics • 465 Si 4
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12.3 Silicate Ceramics • 467 Figu
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12.4 Carbon • 469 Figure 12.16 Sc
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Another molecular form of carbon ha
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12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics •
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12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics •
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12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams • 477
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12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams • 479
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12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics
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12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics
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flexural strength Flexural strength
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12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic Deforma
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viscosities at ambient temperatures
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Summary • 491 Table 12.6 Vickers
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Summary • 493 • Diagrams for Al
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Questions and Problems • 495 visc
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Questions and Problems • 497 does
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Questions and Problems • 499 Stre
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Chapter 13 Applications and Process
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13.3 Glass-Ceramics • 503 Ceramic
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13.5 Refractories • 505 Glass-cer
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13.6 Abrasives • 507 (2910F). Thu
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13.8 Advanced Ceramics • 509 Seve
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13.8 Advanced Ceramics • 511 opti
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13.9 Fabrication and Processing of
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13.11 Powder Pressing • 523 a sca
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13.12 Tape Casting • 525 Figure 1
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Summary • 527 • Requirements fo
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Summary • 529 This chapter also d
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13.12 Compare the softening points
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WHY STUDY Polymer Structures? A rel
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14.3 Polymer Molecules • 535 Tabl
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14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molec
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14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molec
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Figure 14.3 Hypothetical polymer mo
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14.5 Molecular Weight • 543 Table
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14.7 Molecular Structure • 545 Fi
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14.8 Molecular Configurations • 5
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14.8 Molecular Configurations • 5
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14.10 Copolymers • 551 adjacent c
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14.11 Polymer Crystallinity • 553
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For copolymers, as a general rule,
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14.12 Polymer Crystals • 557 ~ 10
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14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materi
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Summary • 561 PET is permeable to
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Equation Summary Summary • 563 Po
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Important Terms and Concepts Questi
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Questions and Problems • 567 age
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Chapter 15 Characteristics, Applica
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15.2 Stress-Strain Behavior • 571
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15.3 Macroscopic Deformation • 57
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15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation • 5
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15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation • 5
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15.5 Fracture of Polymers • 579 F
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15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline
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t 0 t t 0 t 0 Stage 1 Stage 2 (a) (
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15.8 Factors That Influence the Mec
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15.8 Factors That Influence the Mec
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15.9 Deformation of Elastomers •
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15.10 Crystallization • 591 Norma
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15.13 Melting and Glass Transition
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15.14 Factors That Influence Meltin
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15.15 Plastics • 597 Table 15.3 (
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15.16 Elastomers • 599 ing phenol
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15.18 Miscellaneous Applications
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15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials
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15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials
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The tensile modulus of this TPE mat
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15.20 Polymerization • 609 Additi
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15.22 Forming Techniques for Plasti
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15.22 Forming Techniques for Plasti
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15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Fil
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Factors That Influence the Mechanic
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Summary • 619 Equation Summary Eq
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Questions and Problems • 621 McCr
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Questions and Problems • 623 Tens
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Design Questions • 625 Elastomers
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3.1 Hardness • 627 WHY STUDY Comp
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16.1 Introduction • 629 Dispersed
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16.2 Large-Particle Composites •
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16.2 Large-Particle Composites •
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Critical fiber length—dependence
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16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation
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ut, because s/E, 16.5 Influence o
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16.6 The Fiber Phase • 645 Applic
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eactions with the environment. Such
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16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites •
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16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites •
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16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites • 65
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The high-temperature creep and rupt
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16.12 HYBRID COMPOSITES hybrid comp
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16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforce
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16.15 Sandwich Panels • 661 Figur
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Summary • 663 they remain separat
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Summary • 665 When l l c , Equat
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References • 667 List of Symbols
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Design Problems • 671 to be align
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Chapter 17 Corrosion and Degradatio
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Corrosion of Metals 17.2 Electroche
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17.2 Electrochemical Considerations
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17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates
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17.5 Passivity • 691 to further c
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17.7 Forms of Corrosion • 693 sur
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17.7 Forms of Corrosion • 695 Fig
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sodium chloride. Dilute sulfuric ac
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17.10 Oxidation • 703 Zinc coatin
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17.10 Oxidation • 705 Table 17.3
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Ceramic materials are frequently us
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17.12 Bond Rupture • 709 17.12 BO
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Summary • 711 marily a result of
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Summary • 713 Corrosion Preventio
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Questions and Problems • 715 REFE
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Chapter 18 Electrical Properties (b
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18.3 Electrical Conductivity • 72
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18.5 Energy Band Structures in Soli
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valence band conduction band energy
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covalent) and relatively weak, whic
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18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Meta
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18.9 Electrical Characteristics of
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18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction •
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18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction •
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18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction •
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18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction •
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18.12 The Temperature Dependence of
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18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier M
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DESIGN EXAMPLE 18.1 Acceptor Impuri
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18.14 The Hall Effect • 747 Depen
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18.15 Semiconductor Devices • 749
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18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials
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ands that overlap the valence and c
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18.19 Field Vectors and Polarizatio
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18.19 Field Vectors and Polarizatio
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ionic polarization Electric dipole
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18.23 Dielectric Materials • 765
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Summary • 767 + + + + + + + + +
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Summary • 769 • With these mate
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Summary • 771 18.11 r i Ac i 11
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Summary • 773 One common use for
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Questions and Problems • 775 Elec
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Questions and Problems • 777 The
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Design Problems • 779 DESIGN PROB
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Chapter 19 Thermal Properties (a) (
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19.2 Heat Capacity • 783 Figure 1
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19.3 Thermal Expansion • 785 Tabl
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19.3 Thermal Expansion • 787 For
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19.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY Thermal c
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19.4 Thermal Conductivity • 791 F
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19.5 Thermal Stresses • 793 speci
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Summary • 795 • Coefficient-of-
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Design Problems • 799 rod be fabr
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WHY STUDY the Magnetic Properties o
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20.2 Basic Concepts • 803 I B 0 =
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20.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
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20.4 Ferromagnetism • 807 Table 2
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20.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrima
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20.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrima
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20.6 The Influence of Temperature o
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20.7 Domains and Hysteresis • 815
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20.7 Domains and Hysteresis • 817
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20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials • 81
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20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials • 82
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20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials • 8
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20.11 Magnetic Storage • 825 requ
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20.11 Magnetic Storage • 827 Figu
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20.12 Superconductivity • 829 Ele
Page 859 and 860:
20.12 Superconductivity • 831 Tab
Page 861 and 862:
Summary • 833 • For cubic ferri
Page 863 and 864:
Questions and Problems • 835 List
Page 865 and 866:
Questions and Problems • 837 with
Page 867 and 868:
Design Problems • 839 H C 1T 2 H
Page 869 and 870:
WHY STUDY the Optical Properties of
Page 871 and 872:
21.3 Light Interactions with Solids
Page 873 and 874:
21.4 Atomic and Electronic Interact
Page 875 and 876:
21.5 Refraction • 847 Velocity of
Page 877 and 878:
21.7 ABSORPTION Nonmetallic materia
Page 879 and 880:
21.7 Absorption • 851 Reaction de
Page 881 and 882:
21.9 Color • 853 21.9 COLOR color
Page 883 and 884:
21.11 Luminescence • 855 Figure 2
Page 885 and 886:
21.11 Luminescence • 857 n- and p
Page 887 and 888:
21.13 Lasers • 859 Ruby Flash lam
Page 889 and 890:
21.13 Lasers • 861 Partially refl
Page 891 and 892:
21.4 Optical Fibers in Communicatio
Page 893 and 894:
Summary • 865 Input impulse Outpu
Page 895 and 896:
Summary • 867 Transparent nonmeta
Page 897 and 898:
Questions and Problems • 869 Impo
Page 899 and 900:
Design Problem • 871 fiber glass
Page 901 and 902:
WHY STUDY Economic, Environmental,
Page 903 and 904:
Environmental and Societal Consider
Page 905 and 906:
Environmental and Societal Consider
Page 907 and 908:
22.5 Recycling Issues in Materials
Page 909 and 910:
Page 911 and 912:
Page 913:
Design Questions • 885 Environmen
Page 916 and 917:
A2 • Appendix A / The Internation
Page 918 and 919:
A4 • Appendix B / Properties of S
Page 920 and 921:
Page 922 and 923:
Page 924 and 925:
A10 • Appendix B / Properties of
Page 926 and 927:
Page 928 and 929:
Page 930 and 931:
Page 932 and 933:
Page 934 and 935:
Page 936 and 937:
Page 938 and 939:
Page 940 and 941:
Page 942 and 943:
Page 944 and 945:
Page 946 and 947:
A32 • Appendix C / Costs and Rela
Page 948 and 949:
A34 • Appendix C / Costs and Rela
Page 950 and 951:
Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures f
Page 952 and 953:
A38 • Appendix D / Repeat Unit St
Page 954 and 955:
Appendix E Glass Transition and Mel
Page 956 and 957:
G2 • Glossary atomic mass units (
Page 958 and 959:
G4 • Glossary according to unit c
Page 960 and 961:
G6 • Glossary Fick’s first law.
Page 962 and 963:
G8 • Glossary J Jominy end-quench
Page 964 and 965:
G10 • Glossary alternating layers
Page 966 and 967:
G12 • Glossary stock; also, elong
Page 968 and 969:
G14 • Glossary tempered martensit
Page 970 and 971:
Answers to Selected Problems Chapte
Page 972 and 973:
S2 • Answers to Selected Problems
Page 974:
S4 • Answers to Selected Problems
Page 977 and 978:
plane strain fracture toughness, 24
Page 979 and 980:
Clay, characteristics, 518-519 Clay
Page 981 and 982:
Die casting, 419 Dielectric breakdo
Page 983 and 984:
Fatigue life, 258, G4 factors that
Page 985 and 986:
Heat treatable, definition of, 406
Page 987 and 988:
modulus of elasticity, 486 thermal
Page 989 and 990:
Nanotubes, carbon, 13, 471 Natural
Page 991 and 992:
fatigue behavior (PET), 580 magneti
Page 993 and 994:
single crystal, 451 structure of, 4
Page 995 and 996:
Stabilized zirconia, 478, 655 Stabi
Page 997 and 998:
Transparency, 844, G13 Transverse b
Page 999 and 1000:
Power 1 W 0.239 cal/s 1 cal/s 4.1
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Callister - An introduction - 8th edition

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