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arrels of pork meat>>, often approved , i.e. with political manipulation 198 . Andrew Jackson’s presidency polarised popular instincts by playing on his fame as a heroe, which he had acquired during his military career and during the battles against the English and the Indians. Jackson’s politics during his presidency from 1829 to 1837 had widened the Republican ideas of Jefferson. Jackson’s egalitarian propaganda did not evoke the land (and therefore property), but had identified the citizens’ right to vote and to express their feelings, which enhanced his role as president of humble origins, elected by popular will. His policies, which focused on the line to restrict action by the federal government in favour of initiatives by individual states, made a decisive contribution to the push towards the West. One of the most significant episodes was when Jackson decided not to intervene in the dispute concerning the removal of the Cherokee Indians from their lands in Georgia. According to a series of treaties dating back to 1791, the United States had recognised, the Cherokees as the inhabitants of a true nation, with its own laws, rights and customs. Recognition of this status was also linked to the civilised condition of these Indians, who were part of the so‐called “Five Civilized Tribes” (Cherokee, Chictaw, Creek, Chickasaw, Seminole). However, in 1828, following the discovery of gold in their lands, the state of Georgia ignored the previous agreements and deprived the Cherokees of their property. Despite an appeal by the Indians to the Court of Appeal and their subsequent victory, Jackson did nothing to bring the sentence in their favour into effect. On the contrary, he used the Indian Removal Act of 1830 to encourage the removal under the threat of firearms of all the Indian tribes to beyond the borders of the Mississipi, along what was known as “the trail of tears (or literally “Trail Where They Cried”). Therefore, if on the one hand, Jackson was the assertor of autonomy for the individual states, on the other he proved to be a decided supporter of the Union, especially during protests by the southern states, caused by the introduction of protectionist policies, which 198 JONES, A., Maldwyn, The Limits of Liberty American History 1607‐1992, London, Oxford University Press, 1995 [first ed. 1983] (Italian translation Storia degli Stati Uniti d’ America. Dalle prime colonie inglesi ai giorni nostri, Milan, Bompiani, 2011, p. 125) 119
favoured the manufacturing system and put the agricultural economy of the lands used for intensive cultivation to the test. However, Jackson’s policy of laissez faire was particularly intended to oppose the financial and banking system. In fact, he believed that the central government should not favour social imbalance by financing or encouraging the creation of banks. On the contrary he believed it should guarantee an increased number of opportunities for individuals and should incentivise social mobility. The Bank War was supposed to have been identified as the primary element and was at times becoming an unmotivated obsession for the Jackson movement. The presidency of Martin Van Buren (1782‐1862), the first president born in the independent republic of the USA, was also founded on the same political basis. Van Buren found he was facing the problem of a request for annexation by the newly created republic of Texas (proclaimed in 1836). However, he never tackled the question and delayed recognition of the new state, due to complex reasons of foreign policy (recognition of Texas would have been a declaration of war against Mexico) and internal politics (the American colonists who had settled in Texas practised slavery). Tensions regarding the recognition of the Republic of Texas exploded with the Mexican‐American War, fought between 1846 and 1848, which also involved the Mexican provinces of California and New Mexico. Behind all these political upheavals lay the ideology of Manifest Destiny, sponsored by local politicians and publicised by the newspapers. The citizens of the United States became convinced their actions were predestined and this corroborated and fired expansionist aims and the rush towards the West. This was a collective, mass phenomenon, which had a profound effect on the young American nation and crept into political action like a genetic aberration over a number of decades in the nineteenth century. Various hypotheses exist regarding the appearance of the expression of Manifest Destiny. The most reliable one insists on the term having been adopted in 1845 by the journalist, John Louis O’Sullivan (1813‐1895), an influential ideologist of Jackson’s supporters at the time. In one of his articles entitled “Annexation”, published in United States Magazine and Democratic Review 17, no.1 (July‐August 120
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UNIVERSITY OF NOVA GORICA GRADUATE
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Building the American Landscape. Te
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The Oklahoma Land Rush, April 22, 1
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Introduction The purpose of this re
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of the issue of the landscape desig
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especially, during which the intere
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We have tried to do so by suggestin
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colonial settlements were never an
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continued. Under Governor Benjamin
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Nature, agriculture and the languag
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adopted by Jefferson as an architec
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as workshops. Downhill from the Mul
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assessments made with measurements
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Figure 2- Monticello West Elevation
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780 THOMAS JEFFERSON'S MONTICELLO L
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Figure 8- Monticello: 3rd roundabou
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Figure 11- Thomas Jefferson‘s Gar
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Figure 12- Thomas Jefferson‘s Gar
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Agricultural America The English co
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which definitely contributed to the
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legal and commercial documents comp
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overlooking the garden and the road
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The structure was the result of the
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destroyed during the Civil War, bec
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would be turning backward to the Ke
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Jefferson, who considered himself a
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the world. Americans are the wester
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(1736‐1784), the founder of the s
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Tidy, mainly horizontal, board fenc
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which displayed hundreds of pieces
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landscapes and of the towns themsel
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Figure 14- Certifi ed copy (1808) o
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Figure 16- Origins of plantation ho
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Figure 19- Uncle Sam (Constancia) P
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Figures 21/21.1- The plantation lan
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Figure 24- Live Oaks along the entr
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Figure 26- Pricipal facade from the
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Figure 29- Plan Scheme of Poplar Fo
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Figure 33- Jefferson’s 1809 Popla
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Figure 35- Diagram of the south par
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Figure 37- Shaker Village, Berkshir
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Figure 41-Shaker Church Family Roun
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Figure 43- The snake fences in Yate
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However, a grid configuration exten
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The lands freed from the American I
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In the centre of the town there wer
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the garden towns and of the satelli
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and pastoral life. The “middle la
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a tree, and each "leaf" encloses do
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This idea of dedicating a circular
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Figure 45- The grid: Clarck County,
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Figure 47- The grid system (Land Su
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Figure 50- Frank Lloyd Wright, Broa
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Figure 52- The grid and the develop
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Figure 54- Frederick Law Olmsted, R
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Figure 56- Frank Lloyd Wright, Park
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Mumford’s search for the characte
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the “revelation” can also be se
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The old vestiges of the town admire
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At this point we should not be surp
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Economy was described by Charles No
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Among the 41 Fourier‐type communi
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He purchased 90 acres of land, but
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the Shakers. After an 1842 visit to
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Settlements, such as Vineland (1861
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garden, much frequented, especially
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Several architects of the twentieth
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the unusual character of the place:
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Figure 57- Views of Community of Ec
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Figure 59- Right. Anaheim Plan and
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Figure 61- Sketch by Joseph Smith,
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Figure 63- Mormon town-planning. Bi
Page 148 and 149: The “middle landscape” Close me
Page 150 and 151: the large whitewashed factory>>. Th
Page 152 and 153: Despite the fact that the pastoral
Page 154 and 155: Industrial America One’s‐Self I
Page 156 and 157: of a nineteenth century company‐t
Page 158 and 159: A large number of works and investm
Page 160 and 161: designing and constructing the firs
Page 162 and 163: Schinkel posed the question which s
Page 164 and 165: All the works came to the astronomi
Page 166 and 167: Whereas, the agricultural and comme
Page 168 and 169: Furthermore, the Erie Canal was a p
Page 170 and 171: sailed downstream in 30. 180 Fulton
Page 172 and 173: on foot and on horseback animate th
Page 174 and 175: non‐existent places, such as rive
Page 176 and 177: Bridge is a good example of the ind
Page 178 and 179: job of Pony Express. They confirmed
Page 180 and 181: countryside” 196 . Moreover, the
Page 182 and 183: Figure 69- The industrial change of
Page 184 and 185: Figure 71- Birds’ eye view of New
Page 186 and 187: Figure 74- The map shows character
Page 188 and 189: Figure 76- Articifi al landscape of
Page 190 and 191: Figure 80- The natural landscape an
Page 192 and 193: Figure 82- Pioneer family in front
Page 194 and 195: Figure 85- Roads and fences in Wino
Page 196 and 197: Figure 87- John Augustus Roebling:T
Page 200 and 201: 1845), he incited the United States
Page 202 and 203: Manifest Destiny began the period o
Page 204 and 205: First experiences of landscape gard
Page 206 and 207: In designs for a pleasure‐ground,
Page 208 and 209: By irony of fate, the first Preside
Page 210 and 211: construction, deriving from the bal
Page 212 and 213: was to be clarified during the firs
Page 214 and 215: Olmsted was particularly impressed
Page 216 and 217: The search for an ancient landscape
Page 218 and 219: country, enabled Hotchkiss to becom
Page 220 and 221: The prospects and developments of t
Page 222 and 223: Despite the fact that Loudon knew o
Page 224 and 225: At the same time, studies attempted
Page 226 and 227: compared to that of John Claudius L
Page 228 and 229: convinced many architects to dedica
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Page 232 and 233: architecture. Davis’ landscapes f
Page 234 and 235: Figure 89- Mount Airy Plantation (C
Page 236 and 237: Figure 91- Mount Vernon Plantation,
Page 238: Figure 93- Plan scheme of the Jeffe
Page 241 and 242: Figure 97- Thomas Jefferson-View of
Page 243 and 244: Figure 100- Henry Alexander Scammel
Page 245 and 246: Figure 102- Almerin Hotchkiss: Bell
Page 247 and 248: Figure 105- John Claudius Loudon’
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Figure 108- Above: Plan of a common
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Figure 113- Andrew Jackson Downing,
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Figure 115- The situation before Do
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Figure 118- Alexander Jackson Davis
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Landscape as a principle of urban p
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and did not come up to the expectat
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Vaux complemented Olmsted, he had a
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landscape designer could intensify
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of his two sons and of Charles Elio
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Figure 122- Right: Frederick Law Ol
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Figure 124- Frederick Law Olmsted,
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Figure 127- Frederick Law Olmsted,
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the true “line” of change. The
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Association, during the World’s C
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to its interpretation, which would
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means of transport allowed to come
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danger. This reasoning gave rise to
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The Wilderness and the frontier, de
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Figure 129- The Food of our Youth (
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Figure 132- “All the West going f
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Figure 134- A pile of American Biso
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conscience, to which the mass media
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Chronological Table -Events related
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‐J. Winkelmann: Alte Denkmäler d
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1821 ‐Canal Eire from Albany, NY,
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1846 ‐J. Roebling: Suspension bri
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1872 ‐Yellowstone National Park:
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DOWNING, Andrew Jackson, The Fruits
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MORSE, F.B. Samuel, Lectures on the
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WOODWARD, George Eveston and F.W.,
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O’SULLIVAN, John Louis, “Annexa
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CIUCCI Giorgio, DAL CO Francesco, M
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Ingraham, Karl Kamrath, Elizabeth K
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dei timidi, introduzione di Gianni
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PECK, Amelia (ed.), Alexander Jacks
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TEYSSOT, George (ed.), The American
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1997), Association of Collegiate Sc
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SEGAL, Howard P., (review by) “Le
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