Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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their extermination probably having followed very similar lines to those reported by Marshall (1968): shot for food, oil and as vermin, but road deaths have probably also caused substantial populations losses. Of the threatened birds mentioned by Robinson (1991) the following may be the most restricted to grassland habitats: Australian Kestrel Falco cenchroides Vigors and Horsfield, Little Button Quail Turnix velox (Gould), Red-chested Button-quail T. pyrrhothorax (Gould), Singing Bushlark Mirafra javanica Horsfield, Rufous Songlark Cincloramphus mathewsi Iredale, Brown Songlark C. cruralis (Vigors and Horsefield), and possibly Southern Whiteface Aphelocephala leucopsis (Gould) (Blakers et al. 1984). Notable subjects of conservation concern are the Plains Wanderer Pedionomus torquatus Gould, Australian Bustard Ardeotis australis (J.E. Gray), Bush Thick-knee or Stone Curlew Burhinus grallarius (Latham) and Painted Button-quail Turnix varia (Latham) (Lunt et al. 1998), although the Painted Button-quail reportedly lives only in heath, woodland and eucalypt forest (Blakers et al. 1984). Loyn and French (1991) discussed the diets of Stubble Quail, a relatively common species also found in grasslands, and Plains Wanderer in relation to exotic plant invasions. The Bush Thick-knee is mainly a woodland bird (Blakers et al. 1984), usually living in Victoria on farmland remnants of lightlytimbered, lowland grassy woodlands, most commonly treed with Eucalyptus microcarpa (Johnson and Baker-Gabb 1994). The bird is classified as Vulnerable in Victoria, where it has sufferred widespread regional extinction in the south due to habitat clearing and alteration. It is a long-lived, sedentary, nocturnal, cursorial ground-nesting bird, requiring low, sparse groundcover (10-70% bare ground, grasses 67%
Table 17. Endangered reptile species in south-eastern Australian native temperate grasslands. U = unlisted,V= vulnerable, E = endangered, T = threatened. Species Common Name ACT NSW SA Vic References Delma impar Fischer Striped Legless Lizard V V/E E V Coulson 1990, Kukolic 1994, Sharp and Shorthouse 1996, Eddy et al. 1998,Webster et al. 2003, Keith 2004, O’Shea 2005, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009a Tympanocryptis pinguicolla (Mitchell) Eulamprus tympanum marnieae (Lvnnberg and Andersson) Aprasia parapulchella Kluge Grassland Earless Dragon E E E Sharp and Shorthouse 1996, Eddy et al. 1998, Brereton and Backhouse 2003, Keith 2004, ACT Government 2005, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009a Corangamite Water Skink - - - T Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007 Pink-tailed Worm Lizard, Pink-tailed Legless Lizard E or V Suta flagellum Eastern Whip Snake E or V Varanus rosenbergii Rosenbergs Monitor E or V E T Sharp and Shorthouse 1996,Eddy et al. 1998, Keith 2004, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009a E or V E or V T Eddy et al. 1998 Eddy et al. 1998, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2009a Delma impar, Striped Legless Lizard (Pygopodidae) Delma impar Fischer is one of 38 species in the Pygopodidae, a family of mostly surface active, fossorial or semi-fossorial, arthropod-eating lizards, endemic to Australia except for two species in Papua New Guinea, and most closely related to diplodacytline Geckonidae (O’Shea 2005). It is the most southerly occurring of the 17 Delma spp., is considered to be a diurnal, semi-fossorial species, active from September to late March or April (O’Shea 2005). It is slow growing, and could live for up to 20 years (O’Shea 2005). According to Hadden (1995) D. impar had been recorded at 125 sites from the South East of South Australia, through eastern and northern Victoria to southern NSW and the ACT, of which possibly 45 were then considered still capable of supporting it. Additionally O’Shea (2005) mapped recent records from the South East of South Australia. The lizard’s rarity was considered to be due to its specificity to lowland grassland habitat and the widespread loss and degradation of such habitats. Western (Basalt) Plains Grassland was the major vegetation type occupied in Victoria (Webster et al. 2003). Population densities were reportedly highest in dense, relatively undisturbed native grassland, although capture rates were relatively high in an area dominated by Nassella trichotoma and total grass cover appeared to be the best predictor of population density (Coulson 1990). Most of the extant sites (Hadden 1995) were native perennial tussock grasslands, either T. triandra in Victoria or T. triandra and Austrostipa bigeniculata in the ACT (Kukolic 1994), but a few were dominated by the exotic perennial Phalaris aquatica, while sites then dominated by Nassella spp. were found to no longer harbour the species (Hadden 1995). Kukolic (1995) recorded pitfall trap captures in T. triandra grasslands with mixed native and exotic grasses and in areas more dominated by exotic grasses at Yarramundi Reach, ACT. Hadden (1995) found that tussock cover >50% was usual at the majority of extant sites and tussocks were considered important for shelter and as basking sites. D. impar utilises deep cracks in clay soils for shelter, breeding and refuge, and surface rocks may be similarly used, but are not a necessary habitat component (Hadden 1995). Fire was considered an unknown risk, while livestock grazing was considered acceptable since it occurred on nearly half the known extant sites (Hadden 1995). Kukolic (1994) recommended that fire not be used to manage the habitat, mentioning finds of dead individuals at Derrimut, Victoria, after control burns. Webster et al. (2003) noted that fires in spring represented a clear risk to Victorian populations because soil cracks were seasonally unavailable. Weed invasion was listed as one of numerous threats to its habitat (Webster et al. 2003). O’Shea (2005) found that the population at Iramoo Grassland, Victoria, was present in areas dominated by N. neesiana and N. trichotoma as well as T. triandra areas, and persisted well in 0.5 ha areas that were deliberately burnt. She argued that grassland structure (presence of perennial tussocks) rather than floristic criteria determined suitable habitat. Spiders, larval Lepidoptera, Black Field Crickets Teleogryllus commodus (Walker) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and cockroaches (Blattodea) are the most frequently recorded prey items (O’Shea 2005). Coulson (1990) reported that the majority of faecal pellets obtained from individuals at Derrimut Grassland, Vic., from mid January to early February contained unidentified larval Noctuidae (Lepidoptera) and T. triandra fragments which were presumed to have been larval gut contents. Faecal pellets studies by Wainer (1992) indicated prey 10-30 mm in length including locusts (Acrididae), an earwig, an ant, adult moths, as well as items already mentioned. Invertebrates common in the habitat that were not eaten included millipedes, slaters, slugs, bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles (Coleoptera). He also found unidentified grass seeds in the scats. Kutt et al. (1998) reported that nocutid larvae consistuted a high proportion of the diet from November to January and crickets were predominant from December to February, corresponding with the abundance of these taxa. The lizard appears to have a flexible foraging strategy with seasonal food preferences, and forages in the daytime. Brumation takes place in the soil from late March or April to September (O’Shea 2005). Victoria’s largest documented and best studied population (an estimated 600 individuals) is in the Iramoo Grassland Reserve, Cairnlea. O’Shea (1997) provided preliminary details of alternative detection and trapping techniques for the lizard. O’Shea (2005) found that the population at Iramoo was present in areas dominated by either T. triandra or N. neesiana and N. trichotoma, however the exotic habitat was contiguous with the native habitat. Small scale (0.5 ha) summer and autumn fires interspersed in larger areas of unburnt habitat appeared to have little effect on population size and structure or habitat quality. 147
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Literature review: Impact of Chilea
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Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
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Conventions and standards Botanical
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neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
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population densities of existing sp
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elated plants have similar defences
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For invasion to occur there must be
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As yet there appears to be no evide
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experimental manipulation of specie
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species tend to be those which tran
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Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
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Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
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to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
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1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
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Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
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are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
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also based on a misunderstanding of
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Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
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Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
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Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
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1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
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According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
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populations have been found in the
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(Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
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In Australia the altitudinal range
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Proximity to urban development appe
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In the southern Brazilian campos of
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arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
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al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
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Approximately 200 alien grass speci
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Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
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In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
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No emergence was observed in undist
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and high impact (“ability to caus
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also noted that despite a wide rang
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a small reduction in seedhead produ
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Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
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Themeda re-establishment McDougall
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species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
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y increased importance of ant grani
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BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
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According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
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2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
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negative depending on the particula
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Competition with native plants Comp
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asexual seed production, so local f
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GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
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Page 97 and 98: Floristic composition, vegetation s
Page 99 and 100: proportion of the flora then presen
Page 101 and 102: tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
Page 103 and 104: Like vascular plant diversity, comm
Page 105 and 106: Opinions differ on the nature and i
Page 107 and 108: Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
Page 109 and 110: in shifting the distribution, exten
Page 111 and 112: of these systems is largely explain
Page 113 and 114: pasture. The least understood trans
Page 115 and 116: tend to benefit more from relaxed c
Page 117 and 118: Bovids crop their food between the
Page 119 and 120: are therefore less likely to distur
Page 121 and 122: esult in a “short-term flush” o
Page 123 and 124: Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
Page 125 and 126: Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
Page 127 and 128: grasses produced sigificantly more
Page 129 and 130: Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
Page 131 and 132: (Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
Page 133 and 134: Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
Page 135 and 136: Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
Page 137 and 138: Willis (1964) considered that the f
Page 139 and 140: Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
Page 141 and 142: Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
Page 143 and 144: Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
Page 145: Its original habitat on the mainlan
Page 149 and 150: equirement, but unlike plants and v
Page 151 and 152: e assigned the same biodiversity sc
Page 153 and 154: Nematodes are mostly minute animals
Page 155 and 156: found in all mainland states, O. co
Page 157 and 158: Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) o
Page 159 and 160: was once widespread in south- easte
Page 161 and 162: eing sluggish and wingless, and exi
Page 163 and 164: estoration and, if Australia follow
Page 165 and 166: close to the plant are able to bury
Page 167 and 168: Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
Page 169 and 170: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
Page 171 and 172: Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
Page 177 and 178: Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
Page 179 and 180: REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
Page 181 and 182: Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
Page 183 and 184: Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
Page 185 and 186: DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
Page 187 and 188: Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
Page 189 and 190: Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
Page 191 and 192: Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
Page 193 and 194: Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
Page 195 and 196: McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
Page 197 and 198:
Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
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Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
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Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
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Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
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Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi
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