Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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Table 18. Conservation status of south eastern Australian Synemon taxa. Status: CE = critically endangered, E = endangered, S = secure, V = vulnerable, X = extinct; Other symbols: – = not present. References: 1. Marriott 2003; 2. Douglas and Marriott 2003; 3. Endersby and Koehler 2006; 4. O’Dwyer 1999; 5. Edwards 1994, 6. Sharp 1997; 7. O’Dwyer 2004; 8. Douglas 2003b; 9. Dept. of Sustainability and Environment 2009a. Species and form Status Aust Status ACT Status NSW Status SA Status Vic Habitat selene Klug – – E E/CE native perennial grassland y 1 2 selene Klug pale morph – – E native perennial grassland y 1 selene Klug dark morph – – E native perennial grassland y 1 selene Klug Nhill morph – – CE native perennial grassland y 1 selene Klug narrow-winged morph – – CE native perennial grassland y 1 selene Klug Terrick Terrick morph – – E native perennial grassland y 1 plana Walker CE E E X? T/E grassland y 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 nais Klug – – possibly widespread collecta Swinhoe (=? near collecta and sp. aff. collecta) T/E Belah/Callitris wodland and grassland; Walpeup, Sealake – prob S – CE open grassy woodland and grassland?; 1 site Vic: Shelley nr Corryong, many New England Grassland sp.? Refs. y 1 3 8 9 y? 1 3 8 theresa Doubleday – – E T/X grassy woodland?; n? 1 2 3 8 9 Castlemaine, no extant populations know jcaria R. Felder – ? ? T/V woodland, mallee n 1 8 heathland; Kiata, Big Desert parthenoides R. Felder S heathland n 1 discalis Strand – – ? CE mallee, heathland. Big n 1 8 Desert, Hattah undescribed sp. – V? – – 1 site Kosciusko National Park ? 3 Driscoll (1994) listed elucidation of the lifecycle and food plants as a research priority for S. plana. This remains to be achieved. Recent data (Braby and Dunford 2006) suggest it could be polyphagous on suitable Poaceae, or may be a narrow oligophage that has evolved new preferences. In grazed situations, eggs, larvae and perching adults of S. plana may selectively survive on or near tussocks of N. neesiana because they are taller and bulkier than Austrodanthonia tussocks, so are less liable to trampling damage, and because they are not grazed by livestock in the reproductive phase, which corresponds in time with flight and oviposition periods of the moth. Possibly increased survival rates of all life stages on N. neesiana under grazing and declining abundance of Austrodanthonia spp. may have combined to create selection pressure for host shifting. Any genetic change could persist more readily S. plana, with its very localised populations with restricted gene flow, than in more mobile insects. The several forms of S. selene suggest that S. plana may have adequate genetic variation on which selection could act. A similar host shift from native to exotic plant, demonstrated to be genetically based, occurred in the butterfly Euphydryas editha in pastures in Nevada USA. Larval survival was much greater on the alien plant (Cox 2004). Many other Lepidoptera species have adapted to use exotic plants (e.g. Shapiro 2002). In summary, the literature on S. plana contains many incorrect statements, assumptions taken to be facts etc. S. plana appears to be much more widespread, with less specific habitat requirements than previously assumed (Endersby and Koehler 2006). Larval feeding has never been observed and foodplant information is based on surmise. Morabine grasshoppers Morabinae (Orthoptera: Eumastacidae), known as matchstick grasshoppers (Rentz 1996), are a primitive, endemic Australian subfamily of about 250-260 species and 40 genera, of extraordinary biological interest as subjects for studies of genetic drift, cytology, chromosomal polymorphism, karyotype evolution and parapatric speciation (Key 1973 1976 1978 1981, Rentz 1996). Key (1976) provided a bibliography of this literature. They are wingless, mostly very small, slender, fragile, inconspicuous grasshoppers resembling matchsticks, with subtle colouration, mainly active at night (Rentz 1996). External morphology within the subfamily shows very little variation except for male cerci (Key 1981). Morabinae had probably evolved by the Cretaceous, preceding the appearance of Poaceae and a few species are known to consume ferns, assumably a primitive character, although diversification in a number of groups is associated with widespread grass genera (Key 1976). Genitalia dissection of males or examination of the karyotype is the best means of identification (Key 1981, Rentz 1996). 39 chromosomal fusions due to translocations and 22 dissociations due to chromosome breakage have been identified in the subfamily, making most species chromosomally unique (Hartl and Clark 1989 presumably from White 1968 1968). Congeneric species and races of morabines frequently exhibit parapatric distributions with no obvious mechanisms of pre-mating isolation. Detailed studies have demonstrated the extreme difficulty of determining whether these populations consist of races or species and have resulted in reappraisal and clarification of these taxonomic concepts (Key 1981).The species and races appear to be able to mate freely but produce no viable offspring, because of chromosomal incompatibility, so effectively “each population prevents the other from invading its territory by breeding with it” (Key 1981 p. 432).; or the offspring have (often little) reduced fertility; or interbreed occurs despite radical chromosome differences (Key 1981). Many morabines live on trees or shrubs but some on grasses and forbs, and many are monophagous (Rentz 1996) and dependent on specific features of plants for shelter (Key 1978). Like other groups that exhibit parapatric speciation they have low vagility, 160
eing sluggish and wingless, and exist, or once existed, in numerous small sub-populations (Key 1978). Conservation of many of the remnant populations as possible is desirable because of their large genetic and chromosomal variation. Three species of Morabinae are known from areas of grassland in south-eastern Australia. Vandiemenella viatica (Erichson), the first morabine grasshopper described, occurs from south-eastern Tasmania and King Island through south and west Gippsland and western Victoria to Kangaroo Island, and has 19 and 17 chromosome races, the former present in Victoria and Tasmania (Key 1976 1981). Vandiemenella species are dicotyledon feeders (Key 1976). The genus has been the subject of the most comprehensive studies of parapatry in the Morabinae. Twelve species or races have been distinguished based on karyotype, male cercus and genitalia characters, and size relationships (Key 1981 p. 433). Natural hybrids between the chromosome race of V. viatica with an estimated fertility depression of only c. 10%, occur in the contact zone in South Australia. Hybridisation experiments with the various Vandiemenella races and species have found no evidence that offspring males are completely sterile (Key 1981). Keyacris Rehn contains c. 10 species that occur on forbs and low shrubs in south-eastern Australia through southern South Australia to south-east coastal Western Australia (Key 1976). Keyacris scurra (Rehn), Key’s matchstick, is found on the tablelands of southern NSW and the ACT (Key 1981, Rowell and Crawford 1995) in grassland and grassy woodland (Driscoll 1994), and was considered by Key (1978) to be the second most threatened morabine. New (2000) listed it as one of few flagship invertebrate taxa for Australian temperate grassland. It was previously found over a large area of south-eastern NSW, the ACT and Victoria but its range has severely contracted due to destruction of habitat, including grazing and other disturbances (Rowell and Crawford 1995). It is a small species about 25 mm long with form and colouring that makes it difficult to distinguish from dry grass and litter (Driscoll 1994). It is “dependent for its survival” upon stands of T. triandra and associated forbs, is eliminated, “along with its habitat”, under intensive sheep grazing, and is now largely restricted to country cemetry reserves (Key 1978 p. 7), fenced areas along railway lines, and some paddocks only ever grazed by cattle or horses (Key 1981). Rowell and Crawford (1995) surveyed 700 ha of potentially suitable habitat in the northern ACT in 1994 and found populations at 7 sites with widely varying management histories, with a total area of 25 ha, and along the Queanbeyan to Williamsdale rail easement in adjacent areas of NSW. Colonies occupied areas from 0.1 ha to 20 ha. They also reported on an unconfirmed site in Namadgi National Park in the southern ACT. Three populations were new records, and two previously known populations were found to be extinct. Its presence was correlated with that of 14 uncommon to endangered plants, also threatened by grazing and with Delma impar. Sharp and Shorthouse (1996) mentioned a then current study to determine the effects of vegetation composition and past management on populations. Farrow (1999) recorded its presence at one ACT grassland. K. scurra is a winter grasshopper with a single generation per year, hatching in February and reaching maturity by May (males) or in spring. It has very low fecundity: a maximum of 21 eggs was produced by a female in a laboratory colony. The eggs are deposited shallowly in surface soil (Rowell and Crawford 1995). T. triandra is used for shelter and perennial Asteraceae “usually a species of Helichrysum” are eaten (Key 1981 p. 432). “Helichrysum” is an old portmanteau name, subsequently split into numerous genera. Driscoll (1994) stated that the preferred food plants are Chrysocephalum semipapposum and C. apiculatum, the former also being used for shelter. The actual diet may be much more diverse, since individuals ate a wide range of native and exotic herbs and shrubs when offerred no other food (Rowell andCrawford 1995, citing Blackith and Blackith 1966). Rowell and Crawford (1995) distinguished three inhabited plant assemblages: Chrysocephalum semipapposum woodland and wet and dry T. triandra grasslands sometimes with derived origins. Dense T. triandra was not suitable habitat. Other native daisies in the tribe Inulae were suspected to be the food plant in areas where Chrysocephalum was absent. K. scurra has two races, with 15 and 17 chromosomes respectively, which are believed to have once been in contact over a distance ofabout 200 km, but by the late 1950s were much depleted, although a 16 chromosome hybid individual, with an estimated reduction in fertility of 10% was detected in a relict of the contact zone. An artificial field population consisting of males of one race and females of the other survived for at least four generations (Key 1981). Rowell and Crawford (1995) provided additional details of populations, colouration, behaviour and habitat of K. scurra and discussed threatening factors. These include exotic grass invasion (namely Nassella trichotoma, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Eragrostis curvula and Holcus lanatus), increased cover of T. triandra, grazing and changed fire regimes. Achurimima Key contains 17 species found in the herbaceous stratum or on low shrubs, very irregularly in the southern two thirds of inland Australia (Key 1976). Achurimima sp. P42, appears to be the most threatened morabine, recorded from only 6 localities in south-eastern NSW “where small populations survive on lightly grazed native pastures including the composite Helichrysum semipapposum” (Key 1978 p. 18) (now Chrysocephalum semipapposum). Driscoll (1994) noted that efforts by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service to reserve an area where this species was present along with K. scurra were frustrated by an uncooperative landholder. Replacement of forb-rich T. triandra grassland by Austrostipa-Austrodanthonia pasture due to sheep grazing on the southern tablelands of NSW produced “a complete change in the grasshopper fauna”, including the loss of two species which became restricted to cemetries (Key 1978). Canberra raspy cricket Coorabooraama canberrae Rentz C. canberrae (Orthoptera: Gryllacrididae) is a very large cricket, with a body about 40 mm long and antennae of twice this length, recorded only from urban areas in Canberra. The genus is monospecific (Rentz 1996). No populations were known in 1994 (Driscoll 1994). It probably lives under bark and litter and is found in suburban gardens (Driscoll 1994). Rentz (1996) considered it likely to be a grassland species. Virtually nothing is known about its biology. Farrow (1999) collected an unidentifed first instar gryllacridid at the Majura grassland in the ACT and noted that adults are known to occur there. Rentz (1996) provided a colour photograph of a male. Gryllacridids are predatory and often have highly specific food preferences. They all stridulate and are nocturnal, spending the day in burrows or leaf shelters they construct using silk from the mouthparts (Rentz 1996). 161
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Literature review: Impact of Chilea
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Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
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Conventions and standards Botanical
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neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
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population densities of existing sp
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elated plants have similar defences
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For invasion to occur there must be
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As yet there appears to be no evide
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experimental manipulation of specie
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species tend to be those which tran
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Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
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Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
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to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
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1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
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Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
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are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
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also based on a misunderstanding of
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Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
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Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
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Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
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1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
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According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
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populations have been found in the
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(Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
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In Australia the altitudinal range
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Proximity to urban development appe
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In the southern Brazilian campos of
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arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
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al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
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Approximately 200 alien grass speci
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Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
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In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
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No emergence was observed in undist
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and high impact (“ability to caus
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also noted that despite a wide rang
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a small reduction in seedhead produ
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Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
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Themeda re-establishment McDougall
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species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
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y increased importance of ant grani
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BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
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According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
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2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
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negative depending on the particula
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Competition with native plants Comp
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asexual seed production, so local f
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GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
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susceptible to N. neesiana invasion
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Floristic composition, vegetation s
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proportion of the flora then presen
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tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
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Like vascular plant diversity, comm
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Opinions differ on the nature and i
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Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
Page 109 and 110: in shifting the distribution, exten
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Page 113 and 114: pasture. The least understood trans
Page 115 and 116: tend to benefit more from relaxed c
Page 117 and 118: Bovids crop their food between the
Page 119 and 120: are therefore less likely to distur
Page 121 and 122: esult in a “short-term flush” o
Page 123 and 124: Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
Page 125 and 126: Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
Page 127 and 128: grasses produced sigificantly more
Page 129 and 130: Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
Page 131 and 132: (Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
Page 133 and 134: Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
Page 135 and 136: Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
Page 137 and 138: Willis (1964) considered that the f
Page 139 and 140: Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
Page 141 and 142: Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
Page 143 and 144: Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
Page 145 and 146: Its original habitat on the mainlan
Page 147 and 148: Table 17. Endangered reptile specie
Page 149 and 150: equirement, but unlike plants and v
Page 151 and 152: e assigned the same biodiversity sc
Page 153 and 154: Nematodes are mostly minute animals
Page 155 and 156: found in all mainland states, O. co
Page 157 and 158: Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) o
Page 159: was once widespread in south- easte
Page 163 and 164: estoration and, if Australia follow
Page 165 and 166: close to the plant are able to bury
Page 167 and 168: Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
Page 169 and 170: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
Page 171 and 172: Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
Page 177 and 178: Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
Page 179 and 180: REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
Page 181 and 182: Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
Page 183 and 184: Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
Page 185 and 186: DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
Page 187 and 188: Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
Page 189 and 190: Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
Page 191 and 192: Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
Page 193 and 194: Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
Page 195 and 196: McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
Page 197 and 198: Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
Page 199 and 200: Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
Page 201 and 202: Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
Page 203 and 204: Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
Page 205 and 206: Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi
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