Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna ...

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30. Yersinia pestis 30.1. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION 30.1.1. Aetiological agent Yersinia pestis is the causative agent of plague and is a gram-negative bacterium. 30.1.2. OIE list Not listed. 30.1.3. New Zealand status The last case of plague in humans was reported in 1911. It is classified as an unwanted, other exotic organism (MAF 2009) and yersiniosis is a Section A disease notifiable to the Medical Officer of Health (MoH 2009). 30.1.4. Epidemiology Plague, caused by Yersinia pestis, resulted in millions of human deaths in the middle ages. Modern treatment and management of vermin has reduced the threat but the World Health Organization still reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague annually (CDC 2009). Plague is primarily transmitted by fleas from rodent hosts, particularly rats and wild rodents such as prairie dogs in the USA. It can also be transmitted by bites and scratches from infected animals or by the respiratory route in cases of pneumonic plague. It is carried by a large number of rodents and mammals and according to one reference about 200 species of rodents had been proved to be naturally infected (Davis et al 1975). The disease in humans presents as bubonic plague (lymph node infection at the site of infection), septicaemic or respiratory infection. The disease in camels has been reviewed (Wernery & Kaaden 2002). It is associated with contact with infected rodents and transmission by fleas or mechanically by ticks of the genera Hyalomma and Ornithodoros. The incubation period in camels is 1-6 days and death occurs within 20 days. In a recent plague outbreak, deaths that occurred in dromedary camels were associated with transmission by fleas from jirds (desert dwelling rodents) living in the camel enclosure. The disease was transmitted to humans that ate raw liver from a camel that had died of the infection (Bin Saeed et al 2005). The OIE ad hoc group on Camelidae diseases does not list plague as a significant disease of camelids. Only one reference was found relating to plague in a llama. This was a personal communication only with no supporting information (Orloski 2003). Camelids are not considered to be maintenance hosts for Y. pestis. 30.1.5. Hazard identification conclusion Camelids are not recognised maintenance hosts for Y. pestis. Only one report was found of the occurrence of plague in camelids and this was a second-hand report of a personal communication. The disease in camels is an acute disease with death occurring within 20 days. Camelids that are not infested with fleas are unlikely to transmit the disease. Fleas are not mentioned as significant parasites of camelids by the OIE ad hoc group on 112 ● Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries MAF Biosecurity New Zealand
Camelidae diseases, or as transmitting diseases in camelids (Wernery & Kaaden 2002). Therefore, Y. pestis is not considered to be a hazard in the commodity. References Bin Saeed AA, Al-Hamdan NA, Fontaine RE (2005). Plague from eating raw camel liver. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(9), 1456-7. CDC (2009). Plague. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/plague/, downloaded 2/7/2009. Davis DHS, Hallet AF, Isaacson M (1975). Plague. In: Hubert WT, McCullogh CC, Schurrenberger R (eds), Diseases Transmitted from Animals to Man, 6th edition, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, Pp. 147-73. MAF (2009). Unwanted Organisms Register. Available at: http://mafuwsp6.maf.govt.nz/uor/searchframe.htm, downloaded 11/1/2009. MoH (2009). Notifiable diseases. Available at: http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/wpg_index/Aboutnotifiable+diseases, downloaded 2/7/2009. Orloski KA, Lathrop SL (2003). Plague: a veterinary perspective. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical, 222(4), 444-8. Wernery U, Kaaden O-R (2002). Infestation with Siphonapterida (Fleas). In: Infectious Diseases in Camelids. Second edition, Blackwell Science, Berlin-Vienna. Pp. 333. MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries ● 113
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Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama
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MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Pastora
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CONTENTS Executive Summary 1 1. Int
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Acronyms CDC United States Centers
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Executive Summary This risk analysi
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1. Introduction The importation of
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Figure 1. The risk analysis process
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Following public consultation on th
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Disease agent Foot and mouth diseas
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Disease agent PROTOZOA Eimeria alpa
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Bacteria, rickettsias and spirochae
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McKenna PB (2009). An updated check
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6. African horse sickness virus 6.1
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7. Bluetongue virus 7.1. HAZARD IDE
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8. Borna virus 8.1. HAZARD IDENTIFI
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8.2.2. Risk estimation Since entry
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It has been suggested that as many
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Therefore, since the the consequenc
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Givens MD, Heath AM, Brock KV, Brod
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10. Bovine herpesvirus type 1 10.1.
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10.2.2. Exposure assessment Importe
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Bartha A, Haidu G, Aldassy P, Paczo
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11. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
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12. Eastern equine encephalitis vir
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13. Equine herpesvirus type 1 13.1.
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13.2.2. Exposure assessment Assumin
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Davison AJ, Erberle R, Hayward GS,
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1993). According to Fowler (1992),
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Veterinary Authorities should requi
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15. Louping-ill virus 15.1. HAZARD
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16. Rabies virus 16.1. HAZARD IDENT
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� Rabies is a serious zoonotic di
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17. Vesicular stomatitis virus 17.1
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incubation period of the disease. T
Page 69 and 70: quarantined with protection from in
Page 71 and 72: Pharo HJ (1999). Vesicular stomatit
Page 73 and 74: 18.1.5. Hazard identification concl
Page 75 and 76: necessarily be competent vectors, a
Page 77 and 78: 20. Bacillus anthracis 20.1. HAZARD
Page 79 and 80: 20.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 20.3.1. Optio
Page 81 and 82: 21. Brucella spp. 21.1. HAZARD IDEN
Page 83 and 84: 21.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 85 and 86: Gilsdorf MJ, Thoen CO, Temple RM, G
Page 87 and 88: References References marked * were
Page 89 and 90: Serological tests include the compl
Page 91 and 92: with negative results using the com
Page 93 and 94: 24. Coxiella burnetii 24.1. HAZARD
Page 95 and 96: � Although quarantine is not suit
Page 97 and 98: 25. Leptospira serovars 25.1. HAZAR
Page 99 and 100: immune response is a low titre that
Page 101 and 102: Retention of this empty Chapter, wi
Page 103 and 104: 26. Mycobacterium bovis 26.1. HAZAR
Page 105 and 106: 26.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 26.3.1. Optio
Page 109 and 110: without any measures for detecting
Page 113 and 114: Animals become septicaemic a few ho
Page 115 and 116: 29. Salmonella spp. 29.1. HAZARD ID
Page 117 and 118: animals and sporadic cases of salmo
Page 119: Hansen KR, Nielsen LR, Lind P (2006
Page 123 and 124: 32. Trypanosoma spp. 32.1. HAZARD I
Page 125 and 126: T. evansi and T. vivax occur in Sou
Page 127 and 128: 5. Animals to be imported could be
Page 129 and 130: (Kittelberger et al 2002) and is th
Page 131 and 132: � The role of an IHS is to specif
Page 133 and 134: 34. Internal parasites 34.1. HAZARD
Page 135 and 136: 34.1.4.2. Trematodes The following
Page 137 and 138: 34.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 139 and 140: 35. Mites, lice and fleas 35.1. HAZ
Page 141 and 142: 35.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 35.2.1. Entry
Page 143 and 144: N.B. This measure reflects the curr
Page 145 and 146: Hard ticks (Ixodidae) have a lifecy
Page 147 and 148: 1. Camelids could be treated with p
Page 149 and 150: the Eastern Cape and North-West Pro
Page 151 and 152: The larvae reach maturity about 4-8
Page 153 and 154: exploration, debriding and flushing
Page 155 and 156: a. all animals have been re-examine
Page 157 and 158: 38. Weeds and seeds 38.1. HAZARD ID
Page 159 and 160: edding materials include wood shavi
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