Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna ...

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died acutely or within 3 weeks. Clinical signs did not involve neurological signs, but anorexia and wasting was observed. Diagnosis of BD was confirmed from histological changes seen in the hippocampus and the presence of BDV demonstrated by immunohistochemistry (Wernery & Kaaden 2002). More recently, genetic detection techniques are employed to demonstrate the presence of viral RNA using a RT-PCR test. However, the accuracy and reliability of the RT-PCR test has been questioned (Staeheli et al 2000; Carbone 2001). Although viral RNA has been demonstrated in an increasing number of countries and animal species, the occurrence of the disease is still mainly confined to parts of Germany and surrounding countries. Since studies using RT-PCR have not generally been confirmed by viral isolation, it is not known whether closely related viruses occur and what role they might play in causing disease and stimulating antibody production. Detection in the CNS of BDV antigen by immunohistochemistry, of BDV RNA by in situ hybridization, or both in combination with neurohistopathological alterations is considered the most reliable method of confirming active CNS classical Borna disease (Greene & Berg 2006). The sensitivity and specificity of serological assays varies considerably between laboratories. A reason for this is that titres are usually very low (1:5 to 1:320) as the immune response to viral antigens is weak and these antibodies may have been induced by infection with an antigenetically related agent of unknown identity or exposure to some other related immunogen (Staeheli et al 2000). 8.1.5. Hazard identification conclusion The currently available diagnostic tests for BDV are not well suited to diagnosing intra vitam (during life) infections in animals or humans. The epidemiology of BDV remains unclear and several key questions, including whether it causes psychiatric disease in humans and the extent of its distribution worldwide, are controversial. Alpacas and llamas in German zoos have been diagnosed with BD with fatal consequences. Therefore BDV is considered to be a potential hazard in the commodity. 8.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 8.2.1. Entry assessment BD is a rare disease primarily affecting horses and sheep in recognised endemic regions of Europe (Kolodziejek et al 2005). It appears that reported disease in alpacas and llamas is limited to the one report from German zoos in the mid 1970s. Infection is difficult to diagnose, with a largely unknown epidemiology and distribution. Serology remains controversial since seropositivity does not necessarily mean the animal is carrying the virus. Since BDV is reported extremely rarely in alpacas and llamas, and death results quickly if affected, it is unlikely they are reservoir hosts. It is more likely that they are incidental hosts and are unlikely to be important in the epidemiology of BD. The likelihood of importing an infected alpaca or llama is remote therefore the likelihood of entry is assessed to be negligible. 22 ● Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries MAF Biosecurity New Zealand
8.2.2. Risk estimation Since entry is assessed to be negligible, the risk of importing llamas or alpacas infected with BDV is estimated to be negligible. BDV is therefore not classified as a hazard in the commodity. References Carbone KM (2001). Borna disease virus and human disease. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14(3), 513-27. Carbone KM, Duchala CS (1987). Pathogenesis of Borna disease in rats: evidence that intra-axonal spread is the major route of virus dissemination and the determinant for disease incubation. Journal of Virology, 61(11), 3431-40. Greene CE, Berg A (2006). Borna Disease meningoencephalomyelitis. In: Greene CE (ed) Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. 3rd edition, Elsevier, St. Louis. Pp. 165-7. Kamhieh S, Flower RL (2006). Borna Disease virus (BDV) infection in cats. A concise review based on current knowledge. The Veterinary Quarterly, 28(2), 66-73. Kolodziejek J, Durrwald R, Herzog S (2005). Genetic clustering of Borna disease virus natural animal isolates laboratory and vaccine strains strongly reflects their regional geographical origin. Journal of General Virology, 86, 385-98. Schwemmle M, Carbone KM, Tomonago K, Nowatny M, Garten W (2005). Family Bornaviridae. In: Fauquet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J, Desselberger U, Ball LA (eds) Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam, Pp. 615-22. Staeheli PC, Sauder J, Hausmann J (2000). Epidemiology of Borna disease virus. Journal of General Virology, 81, 2123-35. Wernery U, Kaaden O-R (2002). Borna disease. In: Infectious Diseases in Camelids. Second edition, Blackwell Science, Berlin-Vienna. Pp. 174-6. MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries ● 23
Page 1 and 2: Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama
Page 3 and 4: MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Pastora
Page 5 and 6: CONTENTS Executive Summary 1 1. Int
Page 7 and 8: Acronyms CDC United States Centers
Page 9 and 10: Executive Summary This risk analysi
Page 11 and 12: 1. Introduction The importation of
Page 13 and 14: Figure 1. The risk analysis process
Page 15 and 16: Following public consultation on th
Page 17 and 18: Disease agent Foot and mouth diseas
Page 19 and 20: Disease agent PROTOZOA Eimeria alpa
Page 21 and 22: Bacteria, rickettsias and spirochae
Page 23 and 24: McKenna PB (2009). An updated check
Page 25 and 26: 6. African horse sickness virus 6.1
Page 27 and 28: 7. Bluetongue virus 7.1. HAZARD IDE
Page 29: 8. Borna virus 8.1. HAZARD IDENTIFI
Page 33 and 34: It has been suggested that as many
Page 35 and 36: Therefore, since the the consequenc
Page 37 and 38: Givens MD, Heath AM, Brock KV, Brod
Page 39 and 40: 10. Bovine herpesvirus type 1 10.1.
Page 41 and 42: 10.2.2. Exposure assessment Importe
Page 43 and 44: Bartha A, Haidu G, Aldassy P, Paczo
Page 45 and 46: 11. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
Page 47 and 48: 12. Eastern equine encephalitis vir
Page 49 and 50: 13. Equine herpesvirus type 1 13.1.
Page 51 and 52: 13.2.2. Exposure assessment Assumin
Page 53 and 54: Davison AJ, Erberle R, Hayward GS,
Page 55 and 56: 1993). According to Fowler (1992),
Page 57 and 58: Veterinary Authorities should requi
Page 59 and 60: 15. Louping-ill virus 15.1. HAZARD
Page 61 and 62: 16. Rabies virus 16.1. HAZARD IDENT
Page 63 and 64: � Rabies is a serious zoonotic di
Page 65 and 66: 17. Vesicular stomatitis virus 17.1
Page 67 and 68: incubation period of the disease. T
Page 69 and 70: quarantined with protection from in
Page 71 and 72: Pharo HJ (1999). Vesicular stomatit
Page 73 and 74: 18.1.5. Hazard identification concl
Page 75 and 76: necessarily be competent vectors, a
Page 77 and 78: 20. Bacillus anthracis 20.1. HAZARD
Page 79 and 80: 20.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 20.3.1. Optio
Page 81 and 82:
21. Brucella spp. 21.1. HAZARD IDEN
Page 83 and 84:
21.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 85 and 86:
Gilsdorf MJ, Thoen CO, Temple RM, G
Page 87 and 88:
References References marked * were
Page 89 and 90:
Serological tests include the compl
Page 91 and 92:
with negative results using the com
Page 93 and 94:
24. Coxiella burnetii 24.1. HAZARD
Page 95 and 96:
� Although quarantine is not suit
Page 97 and 98:
25. Leptospira serovars 25.1. HAZAR
Page 99 and 100:
immune response is a low titre that
Page 101 and 102:
Retention of this empty Chapter, wi
Page 103 and 104:
26. Mycobacterium bovis 26.1. HAZAR
Page 105 and 106:
26.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 26.3.1. Optio
Page 107 and 108:
Page 109 and 110:
without any measures for detecting
Page 111 and 112:
Page 113 and 114:
Animals become septicaemic a few ho
Page 115 and 116:
29. Salmonella spp. 29.1. HAZARD ID
Page 117 and 118:
animals and sporadic cases of salmo
Page 119 and 120:
Hansen KR, Nielsen LR, Lind P (2006
Page 121 and 122:
Camelidae diseases, or as transmitt
Page 123 and 124:
32. Trypanosoma spp. 32.1. HAZARD I
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T. evansi and T. vivax occur in Sou
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5. Animals to be imported could be
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(Kittelberger et al 2002) and is th
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� The role of an IHS is to specif
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34. Internal parasites 34.1. HAZARD
Page 135 and 136:
34.1.4.2. Trematodes The following
Page 137 and 138:
34.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 139 and 140:
35. Mites, lice and fleas 35.1. HAZ
Page 141 and 142:
35.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 35.2.1. Entry
Page 143 and 144:
N.B. This measure reflects the curr
Page 145 and 146:
Hard ticks (Ixodidae) have a lifecy
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1. Camelids could be treated with p
Page 149 and 150:
the Eastern Cape and North-West Pro
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The larvae reach maturity about 4-8
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exploration, debriding and flushing
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a. all animals have been re-examine
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38. Weeds and seeds 38.1. HAZARD ID
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edding materials include wood shavi
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