Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna ...

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References Barry WC (1954). The occurrence of anthrax in New Zealand. The New Zealand Veterinary Journal 2: 51-52. Cartwright ME, McChesney AE, Jones RL (1987). Vaccination related anthrax in three lamas. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 191(6), 715-6. Coker PR (2008). Anthrax. In: Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. OIE, Paris, Pp. 135-44. De Vos V, Turnbull PCB (2004). Anthrax. In: Coetzer JAW, Tustin RC (eds), Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 3, Oxford University Press, Cape Town, Pp. 1788-818. Fowler ME (1998). Chapter 7. Infectious diseases. In: Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids, Blackwell Publishing, USA, Pp. 148-94. Gill J (1992). Anthrax - still history after all these years. Surveillance, 20(1)21-2. Langston C (1995). Postexposure management and treatment of anthrax in dogs--executive councils of the American Academy of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics and the American College of Veterinary Clinical Pharmacology. The AAPS journal 7(2): E272-3. MAF (2009). Unwanted Organisms Register. Available at: http://mafuwsp6.maf.govt.nz/uor/searchframe.htm, downloaded 11/1/2009. OIE (2009). World Animal Health Information Database (WAHID) Interface. Available at: http://www.oie.int/wahid-prod/public.php?page=home, downloaded 11/2/2009. Sterne M (1937). The effect of different carbon dioxide concentrations on the growth of virulent anthrax strains. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, 9, 49-67. Turner AJ, Galvin JW, Rubira RJ, Condron RJ, Bradley T (1999a). Experiences with vaccination and epidemiological investigations on an anthrax outbreak in Australia. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87(2), 294-7. Turner AJ, Galvin JW, Rubira RJ, Miller GT (1999b). Anthrax explodes in an Australian summer. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87(2), 196-9. 72 ● Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries MAF Biosecurity New Zealand
21. Brucella spp. 21.1. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION 21.1.1. Aetiological agent Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis, and Brucella ovis. 21.1.2. OIE list Bovine (B. abortus), porcine (B. suis) and sheep and goat (B. ovis and B. melitensis) brucellosis are listed. 21.1.3. New Zealand status B. abortus was eradicated from New Zealand by 1989 (Hellstrom 1991; Mackereth 2003). B. melitensis and B. suis are not present. B. abortus, B. melitensis and B. suis are unwanted, notifiable organisms (MAF 2009). B. ovis is endemic. 21.1.4. Epidemiology Information on the global occurrence of Brucella species and brucellosis is available from the World Animal Health Information Database (OIE 2009). Bovine brucellosis formerly had a world-wide distribution but has now been eradicated from many developed countries. Canada and Australia are free from the disease. It still occurs, but at a low prevalence, in the USA and in some parts of the EU, Central and South America and Asia. B. melitensis affects goats primarily but also sheep and occurs in some countries in Europe and South and Central America but not in Australia, the USA or Canada. B. suis occurs in some European, Asian, South and Central American countries and at a low prevalence in the USA. The last occurrence of B. suis in Australia was reported in 2004. The UK is free from all Brucella spp. Brucellosis is a rare disease of camelids. Fowler (1998) reviewed a report in which an outbreak caused by B. melitensis is described. He also reviewed a paper describing the death of three llamas after exposure to camels recently imported from Russia. These animals had high antibody titres to Brucella. However, this report must be viewed with some scepticism since brucellosis never causes acute fatal infections in adults of other animal species. Nevertheless, Nielson (2008) reports brucellosis in camelids related to contact with large and small ruminants infected with B. abortus or B. melitensis. Llamas have been experimentally infected with B. abortus. The only pregnant llama in the exposed group aborted and the organism could be isolated from the placenta, foetus and various organs in the dam (Gidlewski et al 2000). Antibody was detected in llamas experimentally exposed to B. abortus S19 (vaccine strain) and strain 2308 (Gilsdorf et al 2001). Exposed camelids developed antibody that was detectable by a range of conventional serological tests (Gilsdorf et al 2001; Rojas et al 2004) but difficulties were experienced when using the complement fixation test due to anticomplementary activity of the sera (Rojas et al 2004). No evidence was found of natural infection of camelids with B. suis, but since this organism is closely related to other Brucella spp. (B. abortus and B. melitensis) it is likely that it could be infectious for camelids. It is unlikely that B. ovis would be infectious for MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries ● 73
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Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama
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MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Pastora
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CONTENTS Executive Summary 1 1. Int
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Acronyms CDC United States Centers
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Executive Summary This risk analysi
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1. Introduction The importation of
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Figure 1. The risk analysis process
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Following public consultation on th
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Disease agent Foot and mouth diseas
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Disease agent PROTOZOA Eimeria alpa
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Bacteria, rickettsias and spirochae
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McKenna PB (2009). An updated check
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6. African horse sickness virus 6.1
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7. Bluetongue virus 7.1. HAZARD IDE
Page 29 and 30: 8. Borna virus 8.1. HAZARD IDENTIFI
Page 31 and 32: 8.2.2. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 33 and 34: It has been suggested that as many
Page 35 and 36: Therefore, since the the consequenc
Page 37 and 38: Givens MD, Heath AM, Brock KV, Brod
Page 39 and 40: 10. Bovine herpesvirus type 1 10.1.
Page 41 and 42: 10.2.2. Exposure assessment Importe
Page 43 and 44: Bartha A, Haidu G, Aldassy P, Paczo
Page 45 and 46: 11. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
Page 47 and 48: 12. Eastern equine encephalitis vir
Page 49 and 50: 13. Equine herpesvirus type 1 13.1.
Page 51 and 52: 13.2.2. Exposure assessment Assumin
Page 53 and 54: Davison AJ, Erberle R, Hayward GS,
Page 55 and 56: 1993). According to Fowler (1992),
Page 57 and 58: Veterinary Authorities should requi
Page 59 and 60: 15. Louping-ill virus 15.1. HAZARD
Page 61 and 62: 16. Rabies virus 16.1. HAZARD IDENT
Page 63 and 64: � Rabies is a serious zoonotic di
Page 65 and 66: 17. Vesicular stomatitis virus 17.1
Page 67 and 68: incubation period of the disease. T
Page 69 and 70: quarantined with protection from in
Page 71 and 72: Pharo HJ (1999). Vesicular stomatit
Page 73 and 74: 18.1.5. Hazard identification concl
Page 75 and 76: necessarily be competent vectors, a
Page 77 and 78: 20. Bacillus anthracis 20.1. HAZARD
Page 79: 20.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 20.3.1. Optio
Page 83 and 84: 21.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 85 and 86: Gilsdorf MJ, Thoen CO, Temple RM, G
Page 87 and 88: References References marked * were
Page 89 and 90: Serological tests include the compl
Page 91 and 92: with negative results using the com
Page 93 and 94: 24. Coxiella burnetii 24.1. HAZARD
Page 95 and 96: � Although quarantine is not suit
Page 97 and 98: 25. Leptospira serovars 25.1. HAZAR
Page 99 and 100: immune response is a low titre that
Page 101 and 102: Retention of this empty Chapter, wi
Page 103 and 104: 26. Mycobacterium bovis 26.1. HAZAR
Page 105 and 106: 26.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 26.3.1. Optio
Page 109 and 110: without any measures for detecting
Page 113 and 114: Animals become septicaemic a few ho
Page 115 and 116: 29. Salmonella spp. 29.1. HAZARD ID
Page 117 and 118: animals and sporadic cases of salmo
Page 119 and 120: Hansen KR, Nielsen LR, Lind P (2006
Page 121 and 122: Camelidae diseases, or as transmitt
Page 123 and 124: 32. Trypanosoma spp. 32.1. HAZARD I
Page 125 and 126: T. evansi and T. vivax occur in Sou
Page 127 and 128: 5. Animals to be imported could be
Page 129 and 130: (Kittelberger et al 2002) and is th
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� The role of an IHS is to specif
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34. Internal parasites 34.1. HAZARD
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34.1.4.2. Trematodes The following
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34.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
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35. Mites, lice and fleas 35.1. HAZ
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35.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 35.2.1. Entry
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N.B. This measure reflects the curr
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Hard ticks (Ixodidae) have a lifecy
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1. Camelids could be treated with p
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the Eastern Cape and North-West Pro
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The larvae reach maturity about 4-8
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exploration, debriding and flushing
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a. all animals have been re-examine
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38. Weeds and seeds 38.1. HAZARD ID
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edding materials include wood shavi
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