Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna ...

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OIE (2008b). World Animal Health Information Database (WAHID) Interface. Available at: http://www.oie.int/wahid-prod/public.php?page=home, downloaded 11/2/2009. Papp JR, Shewen PE, Gartley CJ (1994). Abortion and subsequent excretion of chlamydiae from the reproductive tract of sheep during oestrus. Infection and Immunity, 62, 3786-92. Papp JR, Shewen PR, Thorn CE, Andersen AA (1998). Immunocytological detection of Chlamydium psittaci from cervical and vaginal samples of chronically infected ewes. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 62, 72-4. Probst C (2007). Infectious agents in zoo ungulates: the first epidemiological study considering different types of husbandry. Thesis. http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:jx2gKfcCH8cJ:www.diss.fuberlin.de/diss/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDISS_derivate_000000003461/10_summ.pdf%3Fhosts%3D+% 5BInfectious+agents+in+zoo+ungulates:+the+first+epidemiological+study+considering+different+types+of+hu sbandry&hl=en&gl=nz, downloded 3/9/2009. Storz J, Carrol EJ, Stephenson EH, Ball L, Faulkner LC (1976). Urogenital infection and seminal excretion after inoculation of bulls and rams with Chlamydia. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 37, 517-20. Szeredi L, Bacsadi A (2002). Detection of Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) abortus and Toxoplasma gondii in smears from cases of ovine and caprine abortion by the streptavidin-biotin method. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 127(4), 257-63. Teankum K, Pospichil A, Janett F, Brugnera E, Hoelzle LE, Hoelzle K, Weilenmann R, Gerber A, Polkinghorne A, Borel N (2006). Prevalence of chlamydiae in semen and genital tracts of bulls, rams and bucks. Theriogenology, 67(2), 303-10. Thomas R, Davison HC, Wilsmore AJ (1990). Use of the IDEIA ELISA to detect Chlamydia psittaci (ovis) in material from aborted fetal membranes and milk from ewes affected by ovine enzootic abortion. British Veterinary Journal, 146(4), 364-7. Tibary A, Fite C, Anouassi A, Sighiri A (2005). Infectious causes of reproductive loss in camelids. Theriogenology, 66(3), 633-47. Wernery U, Kaaden O-R (2002). Chlamydiosis. In: Infectious Diseases in Camelids. Second edition, Blackwell Science, Berlin-Vienna. Pp. 124-6. Wittek T (2008). Retrospective analysis of bacterial culture results form vaginal swab samples from clinically healthy alpaca mares. Tierarztliche Praxis, 35(5), 329-32.* 84 ● Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries MAF Biosecurity New Zealand
24. Coxiella burnetii 24.1. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION 24.1.1. Aetiological agent Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular gram-negative bacterium that causes the disease Q fever. 24.1.2. OIE list Q fever is listed but there is no Code chapter. 24.1.3. New Zealand status Listed as an exotic and notifiable organism (MAF 2009). 24.1.4. Epidemiology Q fever occurs world-wide with the exception of New Zealand (Worthington 2001), Iceland (OIE 2009) and possibly Norway (Jensenius et al 1997). C. burnetii probably infects all mammalian species, birds and many arthropods (Marrie 1990; Marin & Raoult 1999). In animals the infection is of minimal economic importance and rarely causes disease, but C. burnetii is a zoonotic organism that sometimes causes serious disease in humans. Most human infections are asymptomatic or present as a mild flu-like condition. Acute or chronic infections sometimes occur and sometimes result in serious complications such as myocarditis, endocarditis, hepatitis and renal failure (Marin & Raoult 1999; Woldehiwet 2004). C. burnetii causes sporadic abortions in both humans and animals (Raoult et al 2002; Hatchette et al 2003). Transmission frequently occurs from contact with infected uterine discharges and placentae and probably by inhalation of dust contaminated by animals and their birth products (Behymer & Riemann 1989; Marrie 1990; Hawker et al 1998; Marin & Raoult 1999; Tissot-Dupont et al 1999). Infected ticks may also play a role in spreading the disease. At least 40 species of ticks from 11 genera can be infected and their dried faeces form dust that can contaminate animal coats. Infected cattle shed the organism intermittently in their milk after successive parturitions (Kelly 2004). Infected animals generally show few clinical signs thus making the determination of the incubation period and the interval to the development of antibodies difficult. In humans the incubation period is given as 1-3 weeks and the development of detectable antibody titres takes 2-3 weeks after the onset of symptoms (Marin & Raoult 1999). It is assumed that infected camelids will develop antibody within a similar time interval after infection. The infection is diagnosed by serological tests or by identification or isolation of the organism. The ELISA is considered to be more sensitive than the complement fixation test (CFT) when testing cattle and sheep. However, for camelids the CFT is recommended since the ELISA has not been validated in this species (Kittelberger et al 2009). The Manual does not prescribe a test for international trade, but the CFT is listed as a suitable alternative test for use when importing/exporting animals. MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries ● 85
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Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama
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MAF Biosecurity New Zealand Pastora
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CONTENTS Executive Summary 1 1. Int
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Acronyms CDC United States Centers
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Executive Summary This risk analysi
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1. Introduction The importation of
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Figure 1. The risk analysis process
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Following public consultation on th
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Disease agent Foot and mouth diseas
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Disease agent PROTOZOA Eimeria alpa
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Bacteria, rickettsias and spirochae
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McKenna PB (2009). An updated check
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6. African horse sickness virus 6.1
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7. Bluetongue virus 7.1. HAZARD IDE
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8. Borna virus 8.1. HAZARD IDENTIFI
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8.2.2. Risk estimation Since entry
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It has been suggested that as many
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Therefore, since the the consequenc
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Givens MD, Heath AM, Brock KV, Brod
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10. Bovine herpesvirus type 1 10.1.
Page 41 and 42: 10.2.2. Exposure assessment Importe
Page 43 and 44: Bartha A, Haidu G, Aldassy P, Paczo
Page 45 and 46: 11. Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
Page 47 and 48: 12. Eastern equine encephalitis vir
Page 49 and 50: 13. Equine herpesvirus type 1 13.1.
Page 51 and 52: 13.2.2. Exposure assessment Assumin
Page 53 and 54: Davison AJ, Erberle R, Hayward GS,
Page 55 and 56: 1993). According to Fowler (1992),
Page 57 and 58: Veterinary Authorities should requi
Page 59 and 60: 15. Louping-ill virus 15.1. HAZARD
Page 61 and 62: 16. Rabies virus 16.1. HAZARD IDENT
Page 63 and 64: � Rabies is a serious zoonotic di
Page 65 and 66: 17. Vesicular stomatitis virus 17.1
Page 67 and 68: incubation period of the disease. T
Page 69 and 70: quarantined with protection from in
Page 71 and 72: Pharo HJ (1999). Vesicular stomatit
Page 73 and 74: 18.1.5. Hazard identification concl
Page 75 and 76: necessarily be competent vectors, a
Page 77 and 78: 20. Bacillus anthracis 20.1. HAZARD
Page 79 and 80: 20.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 20.3.1. Optio
Page 81 and 82: 21. Brucella spp. 21.1. HAZARD IDEN
Page 83 and 84: 21.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 85 and 86: Gilsdorf MJ, Thoen CO, Temple RM, G
Page 87 and 88: References References marked * were
Page 89 and 90: Serological tests include the compl
Page 91: with negative results using the com
Page 95 and 96: � Although quarantine is not suit
Page 97 and 98: 25. Leptospira serovars 25.1. HAZAR
Page 99 and 100: immune response is a low titre that
Page 101 and 102: Retention of this empty Chapter, wi
Page 103 and 104: 26. Mycobacterium bovis 26.1. HAZAR
Page 105 and 106: 26.3. RISK MANAGEMENT 26.3.1. Optio
Page 109 and 110: without any measures for detecting
Page 113 and 114: Animals become septicaemic a few ho
Page 115 and 116: 29. Salmonella spp. 29.1. HAZARD ID
Page 117 and 118: animals and sporadic cases of salmo
Page 119 and 120: Hansen KR, Nielsen LR, Lind P (2006
Page 121 and 122: Camelidae diseases, or as transmitt
Page 123 and 124: 32. Trypanosoma spp. 32.1. HAZARD I
Page 125 and 126: T. evansi and T. vivax occur in Sou
Page 127 and 128: 5. Animals to be imported could be
Page 129 and 130: (Kittelberger et al 2002) and is th
Page 131 and 132: � The role of an IHS is to specif
Page 133 and 134: 34. Internal parasites 34.1. HAZARD
Page 135 and 136: 34.1.4.2. Trematodes The following
Page 137 and 138: 34.2.4. Risk estimation Since entry
Page 139 and 140: 35. Mites, lice and fleas 35.1. HAZ
Page 141 and 142: 35.2. RISK ASSESSMENT 35.2.1. Entry
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N.B. This measure reflects the curr
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Hard ticks (Ixodidae) have a lifecy
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1. Camelids could be treated with p
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the Eastern Cape and North-West Pro
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The larvae reach maturity about 4-8
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exploration, debriding and flushing
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a. all animals have been re-examine
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38. Weeds and seeds 38.1. HAZARD ID
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edding materials include wood shavi
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