Import risk analysis: Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna ...

Graphinema aucheniae is a parasite of the abomasum of alpacas. It has been reported only
from South America and has a direct lifecycle similar to other Trichostrongyles (Fowler
1992).
Marshallagia marshalli is a common abomasal parasite of sheep, goats, deer and wild
small ruminants and occurs in South America. It is not considered to be an important
pathogen. Diagnosis is possible from faeces examination (Taylor et al 2007f).
Nematodirus lamae is a parasite of the small intestine of camelids. It is found in South
America and presumed to have a direct lifecycle and has not been reported as being
pathogenic. Other members of the genus are pathogenic in young ruminants (Fowler 1992;
Taylor et al 2007h).
Spiculopteragia peruvianus is found in camelids in Peru. Little is known about the parasite
and it must be assumed that it has a direct life cycle similar to other trichostrongyles
(Fowler 1992). Since it has not been described as a significant pathogen it is probably of
minor importance.
Thelazia californiensis occurs in the eyes of a variety of animals including llamas. It is is
transmitted by face flies that feed on the excretions of animals’ eyes. It may cause
excessive lacrimation and mild conjunctivitis (Fowler 1992). Diagnosis is by careful direct
examination of the eyes.
Parelaphostrongylus tenuis is a nematode found commonly in the venous sinuses and
subdural space in the brain of white-tailed deer in eastern North America (Duffy et al
2002). The nematode is not zoonotic.
The infestation is subclinical in white-tailed deer that are the natural definitive host.
However, many other animal species are susceptible to infestation, including all other
North American cervids, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, llamas and alpacas (Tanabe et al
2007; Reinstein et al 2010). All are aberrant hosts, exposed by living in close proximity to
white-tailed deer.
Infestation of abberant hosts may cause severe neurological signs and death. Llamas
particularly appear to be sensitive to the development of severe clinical signs (ADDL
2008).
In natural infestations, infective larvae have never been observed in the faeces of camelids
(Tanabe et al 2007). Further, experimentally infested llamas did not produce patent
infestations. The authors concluded that the risk of llamas transporting patent infestations
to non-endemic areas was slight since it is highly unlikely that the life cycle is completed
in a llama host (Rickard et al 1994). Camelids are therefore concluded to be aberrant deadend
hosts and P. tenuis is not a hazard in the commodity.
With the exception of Thelazia, all the parasites of concern can be diagnosed by
demonstration of parasite eggs in faeces. All species can be treated with standard
anthelmintic drenches. Although other nematodes will be identified in camelids in the
future, diagnosis and treatments for these parasites will probably follow the standard
methods used for nematodes (Taylor et al 2007e).
126 ● Import risk analysis: Llamas and alpacas from specified countries MAF Biosecurity New Zealand