Handbook of Vitamin C Research

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248Jun Yang, Jiaren Liu and John ParryTable 4. Continued.Vegetable Names Scientific Name NDB No Vitamin C (mean ± S.E.)(mg/100 g fresh)Gourd, dishcloth (towelgourd) Luffa aegyptiaca 11220 12.0 ± 0.0Potatoes, skin Solanum tuberosum 11362 11.4 ± 0.3Gourd, white-flowered (calabash) Lagenaria siceraria 11218 10.1 ± 0.0Avocados, all commercial varieties Persea americana 09037 10.0 ± 0.5Tomatoes, yellow Lycopersicon esculentum 11696 9.0 ± 0.0Pumpkin Cucurbita spp. 11422 9.0 ± 0.0Potatoes, red, flesh and skin Solanum tuberosum 11355 8.6 ± 0.6Celeriac Apium graveolens 11141 8.0 ± 0.0Radicchio Cichorium intybus 11952 8.0 ± 0.0Shallots Allium ascalonicum 11677 8.0 ± 0.0Onions Allium cepa 11282 7.4 ± 0.1Carrots Daucus carota 11124 5.9 ± 1.1Potatoes, russet, flesh and skin Solanum tuberosum 11353 5.7 ± 0.9Ginger root Zingiber officinale 11216 5.0 ± 0.0Chicory roots Cichorium intybus 11154 5.0 ± 0.0Onions, sweet Allium cepa 11294 4.8 ± 0.3Lettuce, red leaf Lactuca sativa var. crispa 11257 3.7 ± 0.6Lettuce, butterhead (includes boston Lactuca sativa var. capitata 11250 3.7 ± 0.7and bibb types)Cucumber, peeled Cucumis sativus 11206 3.2 ± 0.7Celery Apium graveolens 11143 3.1 ± 1.2Chicory, witloof Cichorium intybus 11151 2.8 ± 0.3Cucumber, with peel Cucumis sativus 11205 2.8 ± 0.0Lettuce, iceberg (includes crisphead Lactuca sativa var. capitata 11252 2.8 ± 0.2types)Carrots, baby Daucus carota 11960 2.6 ± 0.2Eggplant Solanum melongena 11209 2.2 ± 0.3The data from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. NDB No.: The number ofUSDA National Nutrient Database.Adverse EffectsHigh doses of vitamin C have been associated with multiple adverse effects, includingsevere diarrhea, nausea, kidney stones, and gastritis. Rarely, flushing, faintness, dizziness,and fatigue have been noted. Large doses may precipitate hemolysis in patients with glucose6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Although vitamin C is remarkably nontoxic at highlevels (10 to 100 times the RDA taken orally), some minor toxic effects have been reported(González et al., 2005). Barness (1974) has documented that the side effects of excessvitamin C include fatigue, renal stones, oxaluria, glycosuria, acidosis, gastrointestinaldisturbances, vitamin B 12 destruction, prothrombin and cholesterol disturbances. High dosesof vitamin C should be avoided for those with conditions aggravated by acid loading, such ascirrhosis, gout, renal tubular acidosis, or paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.
Vitamin C: Daily Requirements, Dietary Sources and Adverse Effects 249Prooxidant EffectsConcerns on use of vitamin C have been raised over potentially deleterious transitionmetal ion-mediated prooxidant effects. However, the antioxidant or prooxidant characteristicsof vitamin C depend on the redox potential of the environment and the concentration ofascorbate. Its prooxidant activity has been linked to cytotoxic effect in a series of cell lines(González et al., 1998; Tsao et al., 1989; Yamamoto et al., 1987, Poydock 1982; Bram et al.,1980; Sakagami and Satoh, 1997). Vitamin C has been found to boost chemicalcarcinogenesis in a rodent model (Shklar et al., 1993; Cohen and Bhagavan, 1995), whichmay be explained by the prooxidant activity and the subsequent enhancement of free radicalformation by the carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz[ ]anthracene.The theory behind the prooxidant activity of ascorbic acid is that it participates in theFenton reaction where free transition metals are reduced by ascorbic acid then react withhydrogen peroxide or lipid hydroperoxides to form hydroxyl radicals (OH ) or alkoxylradicals (LO ) (Carr and Frei, 1999). The primary transition metals that would be reduced inliving tissues include iron(III) and copper(II). The reactions are summarized in Figure 3. Invitro cell culture studies have clearly shown that the addition of ascorbic acid increasedoxidative DNA damage; however, it is speculated that the increase in oxidation was related tofree transition metals in the media. This is completely different compared to in vivo systemswhere transition metals are bound to proteins such as ferritin, transferrin, and ceruloplasmin,and free metals are normally found at very low concentrations (Halliwell and Gutteridge,1986; Carr and Frei, 1999).AA + Fe 3+ A + Fe 2+H 2 O 2 + Fe 2+ OH + OH - + Fe 3+LOOH + Fe 2+ LO + OH - + Fe 3+AA + Cu 2+ A + Cu +H 2 O 2 + Cu + OH + OH - + Cu 2+LOOH + Cu + LO + OH - + Cu 2+AA = reduced ascorbic acid. A = oxidized ascorbic acid. LOOH = lipid hydroperoxide.LO = alkoxyl radical.Figure 3. Production of free radicals by the Fenton reaction (Carr and Frei, 1999).Prooxidant activity of ascorbic acid under physiological conditions is of interest becausesome of the resulting compounds produced can be very destructive including OH and LOthat can damage normal biological compounds including unsaturated fatty acids, proteins,and nucleic acids. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids can lead to a feedback loop thatwill continue to produce a growing number of LO unless they are quenched by other freeradicals or antioxidant compounds such as vitamin E or glutathione. If the feedback loop isnot quenched, phospholipids in plasma membranes or triglycerides in lipoproteins maybecome oxidized and cause cells to necrotize or lipoproteins to be taken up by a macrophagesleading to the production of foam cells that contribute to fatty streaks in the development ofatherosclerosis. The oxidation of proteins can lead to changes in structure and halt enzymefunction by inducing conformational change. Some changes to proteins may lead to the
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ContentsPrefaceChapter IChapter IIC
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PrefaceThe 6-carbon lactone known a
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Prefaceixbalance of antioxidant and
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Prefacexiprovided or is contradicto
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PrefacexiiiChapter IX - Background:
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Prefacexvdetoxification defence sys
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Prefacexviiprogressed faster than i
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2Kelsey H. Fisher-Wellman and Richa
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10Kelsey H. Fisher-Wellman and Rich
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In: Handbook of Vitamin C Research
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Human Specific Vitamin C Metabolism
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mgmgmgHuman Specific Vitamin C Meta
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88Ana I. Haza, Almudena García and
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90Figure 1.Ana I. Haza, Almudena Ga
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94Figure 3.Ana I. Haza, Almudena Ga
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100Ana I. Haza, Almudena García an
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Vitamin C: Dietary Requirements, Di
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Oxidative DamageVitamin C: Dietary
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Pro-Oxidant vs. Antioxidant Effects
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186Magdalena Stevanović and Dragan
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Page 218 and 219: 198Magdalena Stevanović and Dragan
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Page 282 and 283: 262Alan M. Preston, Luis Vázquez Q
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300Mustafa NazıroğluKeywords: Vit
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302Mustafa NazıroğluNO is synthes
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304Mustafa Nazıroğlu‗recycling
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306Mustafa Nazıroğluagents, such
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308Mustafa NazıroğluFuture Direct
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310Mustafa Nazıroğlu[21] Basu, TK
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312Mustafa Nazıroğlu[59] Cengiz M
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314Samar Al Sayegh Petkovšek and B
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(mgg -1 )320Samar Al Sayegh Petkov
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330Antonio J. López-Farré, José
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Vitamin C in the Treatment of Endot
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Reciprocal Effects of Ascorbate on
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378Akihito Ishigamicontrols (12,13)
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380Akihito IshigamiFigure 3. Vitami
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382Akihito IshigamiFuture of the SM
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The Importance of Food Processing o
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IndexAA , 249abdominal cramps, 243a
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Index 391atherosclerotic plaque, 23
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Index 393catalase, 6, 13, 169, 181,
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Index 395cyclooxygenase-2, 337, 341
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Index 397endometrium, 286, 294endon
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Index 399GCS, 18gel, x, 87, 92, 121
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Index 401hyperglycaemia, 223hypergl
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Index 403kinetics, 71, 120, 124, 14
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Index 405metastases, 182metastasis,
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Index 407nitrate, 14, 88, 179, 234,
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Index 409phosphodiesterase, 344, 35
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Index 411recovery, vii, 1, 5, 7, 8,
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Index 413steady state, 63, 76, 78st
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Index 415UV, 156, 191, 201, 204, 22
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Handbook of Vitamin C Research

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