Neural Correlates of Processing Syntax in Music and ... - PubMan

Musical Training 34
a causal effect on academic achievement. It was instead assumed that moderating variables,
such as socioeconomic status or familial attitudes to learning, might underlie
these associations. Nonetheless, arts training might stimulate motivational and attitudinal
changes (as increasing self-confidence and perseverance, developing high standards
as well as cooperativeness, and reducing stress). These, in turn, may spill over into
academic achievement.
Musical aptitude was correlated with general intelligence in some studies (see, e.g.,
Hanshumaker, 1980; Lynn, Graham Wilson, & Gault, 1989). However, Helmbold,
Rammsayer, and Altenmüller (2005) did not find intelligence differences between musicians
and non-musicians. Moreover, they observed a comparable factor structure of
intelligence, contradicting the notion of qualitative differences in intelligence between
both groups. Schellenberg (2004) examined in a training study, if music lessons enhance
IQ. Children were randomly assigned to groups that either received musical training,
drama lessons, or no lessons. Increases in full-scale IQ were found in all groups,
but these were more pronounced in the musically-trained group. In a further study,
Schellenberg (2006) demonstrated a positive association between musical training and
IQ (of around 7 IQ point during adolescence and 2 IQ points in early adulthood) as well
as with measures of academic achievement. This relation remained significant even
when confounding variables (as family income, and parent’s education) were statistically
controlled. Musical training may be also beneficial for older adults: Bugos, Perlstein,
Brophy, and Bedenbaugh (2004) demonstrated improved cognitive abilities (as
temporal working memory, planning, concentration, and strategy maintenance) after
individualized piano instruction.
Influences of musical training on visual and spatial abilities
Visual-spatial reasoning requires mentally maintaining images, transforming, and combining
these images into a meaningful whole – a process which is also used by musicians
in the performance of musical tasks (see, e.g., Patel, Peretz, Tramo, & Labreque,
1998). Especially interval analysis of sequential individual notes and pattern recognition
of chords are regarded to enhance visual-spatial abilities (Sluming et al., 2002, 2007).
There is accumulating evidence for the enhanced performance of musicians in visualspatial
tasks (see, e.g., Barrett & Barker, 1973; Bilhartz, Bruhn, & Olson, 1999; Costa-
Giomi, Gilmour, Siddell, & Lefebvre, 2001; Hassler, Birbaumer, & Feil, 1985; Hetland,
2000 [for a review]; Karma, 1979; Nelson & Barresi, 1989). 7 However, the results of
7
A (short-termed) improvement in visual-spatial reasoning after hearing an excerpt from a Mozart piano
sonata (termed Mozart-effect) was proposed by Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1995). However, studies that
are well-controlled tended to report non-significant findings (see, e.g., Chabris, 1999; see, e.g., Steele,