Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology

multicomponent alternatives [304,305]. During this search, dinitrosyl ferrohemochrome
was synthesized from hemin and nitric oxide and found to be capable of
imparting a characteristic cured color to meat [365]. Subsequently, this natural
cooked, cured meat pigment (CCMP) was demonstrated to accentuate the antioxidant
activity of the ingredients used for flavor preservation in nitrite-free curing compositions
[305]. In a �-carotene–linoleate model system, the antioxidant properties of
CCMP were found to be concentration-dependent and were hypothesized to involve
quenching of free radicals [366].
G. Smoking
Smoking is a process that combines the effects of brining, heating, drying, and finally
application of smoke to the product. The effectiveness of smoke as an antioxidant
in processed meats is attributed to the phenols generated during thermal decomposition
of phenolic acids and lignin [306]. In addition, smoke flavor may mask rancid
flavor, thus requiring greater degrees of oxidation to render the product unacceptable
[307].
H. Heating/Cooking
Another processing treatment that modifies lipid oxidation is the application of heat.
Dislodgement of iron from heme compounds, disruption of cellular integrity, breakdown
of preexisting hydroperoxides, and inactivation of lipases, phospholipases,
lipoxygenase, and other enzymes associated with lipid peroxidation are consequences
of heating and as a general rule lead to an acceleration in oxidation of stored precooked
product. For example, heat-processed dark ground mackerel muscle oxidized
faster during refrigerated storage than its raw counterpart; however, the opposite
trend observed for the light ground muscle exemplified the exception to the rule
[308].
The response of a product to heat is dependent on the end-point temperature
and the overall amount of heat applied [285,309]. A mathematical model derived to
predict the development of warmed-over flavor in minced beef during chill storage
under various heating conditions estimated increasing levels of TBARS with increasing
end-point temperature (60–80�C) [310]. Spanier et al. [311] similarly found that
higher core temperatures (68.3�C vs. 51.7�C) in beef miniroasts caused higher levels
of TBARS. On the other hand, Smith et al. [312] determined that acceleration in
oxidation with increasing temperatures occurred only above a threshold temperature,
which in the case of chicken breast was 74�C. The existence of a threshold temperature
would explain results of Mast and MacNeil [313] who pasteurized mechanically
deboned poultry at 59–60�C for up to 6 minutes and found that the treatment did
not lead to acceleration in lipid oxidation during subsequent frozen storage at �18�C.
Wang et al. [314] also found in the heating of lake herring that there existed a
breakpoint in the amount of heat applied below which inactivation of lipoxygenaselike
enzyme(s) occurred and above which factors contributing to nonenzymatic oxidation
increased. As temperature is further increased, another breakpoint develops
in response to the generation of antioxidative Maillard reaction products. According
to Hamm [315], the Maillard reaction in meats begins at about 90�C and increases
with increased temperature and heating time. Later results support this statement:
Huang and Greene [316] reported that beef subjected to high temperatures and/or
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