Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology

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fed high-fat diets. In support of this hypothesis, Emmet and Heaton (57) examined food records from 160 subjects who had weighed their food for 4 days. They reported that an increase in refined sugar intake is associated with a linear increase in the intake of fat combined with carbohydrate. This suggests that refined sugar may act as a vehicle for fat intake by increasing fat palatability. Some have reported that there is an inverse relationship between consumption of sugar and fat, terming it the ‘‘see-saw’’ effect. When consumption of fat and sugar are expressed as a percentage of total intake, then this inverse relationship is present. However, when expressed in absolute terms, there is a positive relationship between dietary fat and carbohydrate intake (58). B. Mechanisms for Fat-Induced Food Intake 1. Caloric Density The higher caloric density of many high-fat diets may play a role in inducing this hyperphagic response (36,37,59). In humans, Duncan et al. (32) reported that adult subjects eat almost twice as many calories on a high density diet compared to a low density diet. In studies using experimental animals, hyperphagia is typically observed only when the caloric density of the diets is high, greater than approximately 5.8 kcal per gram of diet [for review, see Warwick and Schiffman (9)]. In addition, when caloric density is constant, rats fed a diet high in corn oil have a caloric intake similar to that of animals fed low-fat diets (56,60). Several investigators have reported that a preference develops for a flavor that is paired with a high number of calories versus one paired with a low number of calories. A study by Johnson et al. (61) indicated that children report increased flavor pleasantness due to association with a high density of fat calories. In rats, a flavor associated with corn oil consumption is preferred over a flavor that is not paired with oil (62,63). In studies in which oils or high-fat foods are given, animals often initially do not consume greater quantities of the fat. However, over time the rats do consume more of the fat as they learn about the associated postingestive consequences (i.e., greater caloric value) (64–68). In contrast, others have suggested that that dietary fat is overconsumed even when compared with an isoenergic carbohydrate diet of similar palatability (69,70). Further, Lucas et al. (71) report that, relative to an isocaloric high-carbohydrate diet, the postingestive effect of high-fat diets stimulates overeating and conditions a stronger flavor preference in rats, suggesting that some quality in fat per se may be inducing intake. 2. Stomach Distention Differences in stomach distention due to dietary fat versus carbohydrate or protein may also account for its hyperphagic effect (9). Warwick and Schiffman (9) suggested that because of the greater caloric density of dietary fat, a high-fat meal has a smaller volume than an isocaloric high-carbohydrate meal, resulting in less stomach distention. This lesser distention would lead to an attenuation of satiety signals. In addition, Cunningham et al. (72) reported that the rate of stomach emptying increases when a high-fat diet is habitually consumed. Dietary fat has also been found to influence relative consumption of carbohydrate and protein. Crane and Greenwood (73) allowed rats to select from either highcarbohydrate or high-protein diets. Half of the diets contained 20% soybean oil as Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
the fat component and the other half contained 20% lard as the fat component. Animals selecting from the soybean oil diets consumed more carbohydrate and less protein than animals choosing from the lard-based diets. Grossman et al. (74) further showed that rats gavaged with either beef tallow or corn oil 2 hours before selecting from either high-carbohydrate or high-protein diets consume less carbohydrate and more protein if given tallow versus corn oil. They (74) also demonstrated that the hepatic vagus must be intact for this selection to occur and that mercaptoacetate (fatty acid oxidation inhibitor) can blunt the effect. 3. Metabolic Signals In an attempt to understand the mechanisms underlying the effects of dietary fat on appetite, investigators have examined absorptive or postabsorptive responses to dietary fat. In particular, fatty acid oxidation has been studied as a possible satiety signal that is generated in response to food (i.e., fat) consumption. Scharrer and Langhans (75) demonstrated that in rats, consumption of a high-fat diet can be stimulated by inhibiting fatty acid oxidation with 2-mercaptoacetate. Friedman et al. (76) also reported a stimulation of food intake when fatty acid oxidation is inhibited with methyl palmoxirate. This feeding effect, labeled ‘‘lipoprivic feeding,’’ has been shown to be impaired by hepatic vagotomy (77) and subdiaphragmatic vagotomy (78). In addition, Ritter and Taylor (79) reported that capsaicin can block this effect, implying that vagal sensory neurons appear to be involved in lipoprivic feeding. Studies utilizing brain lesions indicate that lipoprivic feeding involves the lateral parabrachial nucleus and possibly the area postrema/nucleus of the solitary tract (80). Type of fat may influence this response as Wang et al. (81) reported that food intake is stimulated by mercaptoacetate in rats given corn oil but not tallow diets. Other investigators have examined aspects of fat metabolism as potential satiety signals by administering fat metabolites centrally or peripherally. Arase et al. (82) reported that intracerebroventricular infusions of �-hydroxybutyrate (�-OHB) reduce food intake in Sprague–Dawley or Osborne–Mendel rats consuming either a highor a low-fat diet. However, such infusions do not reduce food intake in S5B/PI rats, rats that are resistant to weight gain when consuming high-fat diets. Peripheral injections of �-OHB decrease food intake in S5B/PI rats by not Obsorne–Mendel animals, and glycerol has no effect in either strain (83). Peripheral injections of glycerol in Wistar rats (84) and �-OHB in Sprague–Dawley rats (85) also decrease food intake. Fat, when infused into the intestine, can suppress hunger, induce satiety, or delay gastric emptying (16,86–88). However, as stated previously, dietary fat appears to be overconsumed and often can lead to obesity. The disparate effects of intraintestinal infusions of fat versus dietary fat have been termed the ‘‘fat paradox’’ (89). It has been suggested that high-fat foods have a very high palatability and orosensory stimulation (90–92), leading to overconsumption before the nutrients can even enter the intestine to generate satiety signals. In support of this hypothesis, satiety signals potentially arising from postabsorptive metabolic events appear to be blunted from fat in comparison with other nutrients. For example, it has been reported that carbohydrate and protein consumption is followed by an increase in their oxidation (93–95), whereas oxidation of fat is not generally stimulated until 3–7 days following consumption of a high-fat diet (96,97). Furthermore, it has been reported that fat oxidation is especially limited in obese as compared with lean individuals (34,98). Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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TM Food Lipids Chemistry, Nutrition
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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY A Serie
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37. Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Health a
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90. Dairy Technology: Principles of
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Preface to the Second Edition Reade
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Preface to the First Edition There
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Contents Preface to the Second Edit
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20. Dietary Fats and Coronary Heart
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J. Bruce German Department of Food
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1 Nomenclature and Classification o
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described as 2-methyl-3-phytyl-1,4-
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Table 3 A Summary of Sequence Prior
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Table 5 Systematic, Common, and Sho
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saturation of EFA occurs (primarily
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Figure 5 Prostaglandin metabolites
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Figure 7 Prostanoic acid and prosta
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Figure 9 Eicosenoid isomers in part
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Figure 10 Nomenclature of cyclic fa
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Figure 13 Hydroxy fatty acid struct
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Figure 15 Furanoid fatty acid struc
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Table 7 Short Abbreviations for Som
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Figure 20 Steroid nomenclature. rep
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Figure 22 Cholesterol oxidation pro
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E. Phosphoglycerides (Phospholipids
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Figure 26 Glyceroglycolipid structu
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Figure 28 Structures of some vitami
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6. IUPAC. Nomenclature of Organic C
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2 Chemistry and Function of Phospho
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variant [1]. Phosphonolipids are ma
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nonelectrolytes, however, the perme
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pensations in that enthalpy lost by
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Table 3 Membrane Deterioration in A
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erols to generate semisolid or plas
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The interaction of phospholipids wi
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fatty acid occurs when Fe 3� at t
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4. M. C. Blok, L. L. M. van Deenen,
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47. N. Markova, E. Sparr, L. Wadso,
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87. R. J. Hsieh. Contribution of li
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3 Lipid-Based Emulsions and Emulsif
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may be composed of surface-active c
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2. Cloud Point When a surfactant so
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HLB=7� � (hydrophilic group num
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sion is known as the phase inversio
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strongly with each other rather tha
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� = � (1 � 2.5�) (3) 0 wher
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Figure 8 Biopolymer molecules or ag
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divide homogenization into two cate
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2� �P 1 = (4) r where � is th
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flow rate, decreasing the size of t
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sion be particularly small, it is u
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2. Electrostatic Interactions Elect
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profile of interdroplet pair potent
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Figure 12 Mechanisms of emulsion in
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[Eq. (9)], but at high droplet conc
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alteration in the system’s compos
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Food emulsions always contain dropl
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creaming and sedimentation in emuls
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Foams (E. Dickinson and G. Stainsby
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4 The Chemistry of Waxes and Sterol
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Shrinkage and flash point are two f
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lowing discussion on chemical analy
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violet chromophore. Application of
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Figure 1 Examples of naturally occu
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Scheme 1 Synthesis of mevalonic aci
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Scheme 3 Synthesis of farnesyl pyro
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Scheme 6 Biosynthesis of cholestero
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educe the risk of coronary heart di
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of cholesterol to bile acids (Schem
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Scheme 10 Metabolic alterations of
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sample preparation is usually emplo
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at levels of 1-100 �g per compone
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30. H. W. Chen, A. A. Kandutsch, an
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Biologically Significant Steroids (
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5 Extraction and Analysis of Lipids
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preparing nutritional labeling mate
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polar solvents, such as alkanols, f
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a ternary system consisting of chlo
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lipids from meat or hydrolytic prod
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perature under vacuum. Acid hydroly
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IV. ANALYSIS OF LIPID EXTRACTS Lipi
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ments, etc.) primarily involves chr
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2. Gas Chromatography The GC (or GL
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4. Supercritical Fluid Chromatograp
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Table 3 Solvent Systems that Could
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sibility of determining all compone
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the isolated trans band is another
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ionized molecule has the highest m/
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3. W. R. Bloor. Outline of a classi
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45. Association of Official Analyti
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90. M. N. Vaghela and A. Kilara. A
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132. C. G. Walton, W. M. N. Ratnaya
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6 Methods for trans Fatty Acid Anal
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where A = abc (1) 1 A = absorbance
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methyl elaidate weight equivalents
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method was modified by inclusion of
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may be packed or bound to a column,
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Figure 4 The C-18 region of the gas
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Table 2 Response Factors of Unsatur
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Figure 5 Separation of the phenacyl
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B. Gas Chromatography/IR Spectrosco
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Figure 7 Expanded IR spectral range
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CFAMs before converting them to the
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Figure 8 GC-EIMS chromatographic da
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flame ionization detection. The fat
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levels in excess of 50% of the tota
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22. A. Huang and D. Firestone. Dete
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59. E. G. Perkins and C. Smick. Oct
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97. Association of Official Analyti
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136. J. J. Myer and A. Kukis. Elect
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7 Chemistry of Frying Oils KATHLEEN
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Table 1 Effects of Physical and Che
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Figure 3 Oxidation reactions in fry
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or intermittent frying, oil filtrat
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for the ultimate criteria to evalua
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triacylglycerol polymers, and triac
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100 compounds identified in hydroge
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5. J. Pokorny. Flavor chemistry of
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50. Anonymous. Recommendations of t
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8 Recovery, Refining, Converting, a
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Figure 1 Depiction of hard screw pr
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Figure 2 Depiction of prepress solv
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Seed containing more than the criti
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Figure 5 Steps in processing soybea
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specification of 50% protein is met
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tent of prepress cake is 15-18%, an
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in successive passes through the be
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Figure 10 Additional commonly used
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that follow the DT. Drying at norma
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B. Extraction of Oil-Bearing Fruits
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1. Wet Rendering Wet rendering is t
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Figure 15 Process flow sheet for de
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Table 2 Properties of Some Crude an
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Figure 16 Process flow sheet for al
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Figure 17 Process flow sheet for va
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for problematic high wax contents (
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Figure 19 Oil processing facilities
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Figure 20 Depiction of physical ref
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4-7�C, and then to tanks with slo
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Figure 21 Hydrogenation reaction me
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ond, which may form in its original
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Figure 24 Plasticization of margari
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Figure 25 Equipment used in expande
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selectivity, others claim success i
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48. E. J. Campbell. Sunflower oil.
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9 Crystallization and Polymorphism
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Generally, it is accepted that both
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Figure 2 A point lattice. (Adapted
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structure.... The term ‘fat’ us
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Figure 6 Schematic representation o
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Figure 8 Polymorphic transitions of
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where A = B = C and all are saturat
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LMF was found to facilitate the tra
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Table 3 Nomenclature and Melting Po
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Other mixed-fat systems have been s
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Figure 12 Proposed intermediate str
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17. K. Larsson. The crystal structu
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59. G. G. Jewell. Vegetable fats. I
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10 Chemical Interesterification of
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however, since monoacylglycerols an
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D. The ‘‘Real’’ Catalyst Th
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Figure 3 Proposed reaction mechanis
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Figure 5 Kinetics of interesterific
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Table 1 Theoretical Triacylglycerol
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Cast et al. [55] demonstrated the r
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Solid: Liquid: SSS, 33.3% OOO, 8.3%
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Figure 11 Changes in the fatty acid
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fication and blending on butterfat-
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influence of interesterification on
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B. Margarines In the manufacture of
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Figure 16 Proportion of soild fat o
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Tautorus and McCurdy [102] demonstr
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors acknowl
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54. A. Kuksis, M. J. McCarthy, and
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101. S. Zalewski and A. M. Gaddis.
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11 Lipid Oxidation of Edible Oil DA
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Figure 1 Molecular orbital of tripl
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Figure 3 Singlet oxygen formation b
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tween substrate and triplet oxygen
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Figure 8 Conjugated and nonconjugat
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Figure 11 Conjugated hydroperoxide
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etween the oxygen and the oxygen of
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cadienal, trans,trans-2,4-decadiena
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Figure 14 Mechanism for the formati
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Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker, In
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Figure 18 Formation and reactions o
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Figure 19 Effect of 0, 0.25, 0.5, a
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Figure 21 Singlet oxygen quenching
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10. E. N. Frankel. Chemistry of aut
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52. A. L. Callison. Singlet oxygen
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12 Lipid Oxidation of Muscle Foods
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A. Initiation The direct reaction o
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undles), and endomysia (sheaths of
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sosomes, etc. A comparison of the l
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dative stability, comparisons betwe
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5. Hydrolysis of Lipids and Associa
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of iron from the heme pocket by coo
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Membrane systems that reduce iron c
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phases of storage [51,187,188]. In
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4. Glutathione While the traditiona
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G. Mathematical Modeling The pathwa
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with this chemical, treated salmon
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multicomponent alternatives [304,30
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and its extent was related to inten
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esponded similarly to vacuum packag
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31. M. L. Greaser, R. G. Cassens, W
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72. J. S. Elmore, D. S. Mottram, M.
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112. J. Kanner, H. Mendel, and P. B
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154. M. B. Korycka-Dahl and T. Rich
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193. P. Akhtar, J. I. Gray, T. H. C
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230. B. Bjerkeng and G. Johnsen. Fr
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271. C.-J. Huang, and M.-L. Fwu. De
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313. M. G. Mast and J. H. MacNeil.
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353. H. A. Ghanbari, W. B. Wheeler,
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13 Fatty Acid Oxidation in Plant Ti
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1. Fatty Acid Activation Prior to d
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L.) leaf peroxisomes exhibits highe
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Figure 2 The glyoxylate cycle in gl
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C. �-Oxidation of Specific Fatty
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cotyledons and partially purified.
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Catabolism of heptanoyl CoA as well
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Figure 6 Peroxisome catabolism of m
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onstrated that �-oxidations requi
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that the member of the enzyme famil
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Plant oxylipin pathway, also named
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Figure 9 Proposed scheme for lipoxy
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oleic acid. These results suggest t
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of the seed pod reversed senescnece
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Figure 11 ‘‘Heterolytic’’-t
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Since 1971, when this physiologic r
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Table 1 Physiological Effects of Ja
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erides, although PUFAs in both form
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9-hydroperoxides and did not attack
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aerial parts of plants, constitutes
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32. J. B. Ohlrogge and V. S. Eccles
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74. L. J. Morris. The mechanism of
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115. B. A. Vick. Oxygenated fatty a
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153. T. K. Peterman and J. N. Siedo
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193. B. A. Stelmach, A. Müller, P.
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230. M. Hamberg, C. A. Herman, and
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14 Methods for Measuring Oxidative
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ated fatty acids during oxidation (
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Several other chemical methods have
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Figure 3 Relationship between perox
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distillate. In case of the distilla
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and ketones. This ion is formed fro
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(Fig. 9), foaming, color, viscosity
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Yen and Duh [69] and Chen and Ho [7
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Figure 10 1 H Nuclear magnetic reso
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to Marquez-Ruiz et al. [93], who us
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35. F. Shahidi, J. Yun, L.J. Rubin,
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77. H. Saito and K. Nakamura. Appli
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15 Antioxidants DAVID W. REISCHE Th
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Hydroperoxide degradation leads to
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e cyclical, with regeneration of th
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A. Synthetic Antioxidants Synthetic
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Propyl gallate (PG) 212.20 White cr
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4. 6-Ethoxy-1,2-dihydro-2,2,4-trime
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Figure 3 Structures of tocopherols
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Figure 4 Structures of ascorbic aci
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4. Enzymatic Antioxidants Glucose o
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would be imprudent to discount any
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droxycoumarin (scopoletin), and hyd
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Figure 7 Structures of sesame antio
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8. G. Minotti. Sources and role of
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50. K. Shimada, H. Muta, Y. Nakamur
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16 Antioxidant Mechanisms ERIC A. D
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For instance, the hydrogen of the h
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Figure 2 Mechanism by which one phe
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Figure 4 Formation of �-tocophero
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Figure 6 Formation of an epoxyquino
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gallate. The antioxidant mechanism
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Figure 8 Products formed from the o
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in food systems, transition metals
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An intersystem energy transfer occu
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V. ALTERATIONS IN LIPID OXIDATION B
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VII. ANTIOXIDANT INTERACTIONS Biolo
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26. J. Kanner, J. B. German, and J.
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68. J. Kanner, F. Sofer, S. Harel,
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17 Fats and Oils in Human Health DA
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Table 1 Classification of LDL Parti
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stearic) had been incorporated by i
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studies contains equal amounts (40-
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Table 5 Influence of 25% Caloric Re
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26. L. D. Cowan, D. L. O’Connell,
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fatty acid margarine on serum lipid
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nutrition examination survey. I. Ep
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18 Unsaturated Fatty Acids STEVEN M
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Figure 1 A generalized scheme for h
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Plant fatty acids provide a seminal
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plants [27]. However, the requireme
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The reciprocal response of the �6
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fatty acids and a dynamic system fo
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production of commercially viable o
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acids synthesized de novo, primaril
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Figure 4 The cis and trans configur
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VI. SYNTHESIS AND ABUNDANCE OF PUFA
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of eicosanoids. It is present in al
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usual NMIFA structures with potenti
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10. S. P. Baykousheva, D. L. Luthri
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47. M. J. T. Alaniz, I. N. T. d. Go
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86. R. J. Henderson and D. R. Toche
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19 Dietary Fats, Eicosanoids, and t
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synthesize EPA from linolenic acid
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Figure 2 Immune responses as a func
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done predominantly in rodent specie
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guinea pigs showed increased immune
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of energy from fat. Feeding the low
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14. P. Purasiri, A. Murray, S. Rich
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20 Dietary Fats and Coronary Heart
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(HDLs). Each class has its own char
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70% of the total amount of choleste
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McGandy and coworkers [8] have care
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Figure 4 Effects of myristic and pa
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3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Poly
Page 633 and 634: Figure 8 Effects of a mixture of sa
Page 635 and 636: chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1),
Page 637 and 638: Figure 11 In vitro LDL oxidation. F
Page 639 and 640: Table 4 Fatty Acid Composition of a
Page 641 and 642: Figure 12 Processes involved in thr
Page 643 and 644: as compared with a diet rich in but
Page 645 and 646: from cardiovascular disease [73,74]
Page 647 and 648: Figure 16 Schematic representation
Page 649 and 650: aggregation tendency induced by som
Page 651 and 652: 35. D. R. Janero. Malondialdehyde a
Page 653 and 654: 68. B. J. Burrl, R. M. Dougherty, D
Page 655 and 656: 21 Conjugated Linoleic Acids: Nutri
Page 657 and 658: method that works optimally in all
Page 659 and 660: adipose tissue contained two major
Page 661 and 662: providing rats with 0.5% and 1% CLA
Page 663 and 664: with the control group. Interesting
Page 665 and 666: feeding. These findings suggest tha
Page 667 and 668: In contrast to the antioxidative pr
Page 669 and 670: esponsible, at least in part, for t
Page 671 and 672: Yamasaki et al. studied CLA and ant
Page 673 and 674: 17. J. K. G. Kramer, P. W. Parodi,
Page 675 and 676: 55. C. Ip, S. F. Chin, J. A. Scimec
Page 677 and 678: 90. J. S. Munday, K. G. Thompson, a
Page 679 and 680: 126. J. Singh, R. Hamid, and B. S.
Page 681 and 682: 22 Dietary Fats and Obesity DOROTHY
Page 683: For example, some have reported tha
Page 687 and 688: shows that there is a negative corr
Page 689 and 690: C. Influence of Dietary Fat on Fatt
Page 691 and 692: Figure 1 Signal transduction cascad
Page 693 and 694: mals indicate that high-fat feeding
Page 695 and 696: processes. Numerous studies provide
Page 697 and 698: monier (252) suggested that in cert
Page 699 and 700: 4. National Task Force on Obesity.
Page 701 and 702: 46. F. Lucas, K. Ackroff, and A. Sc
Page 703 and 704: 90. D. Mela. Sensory preference for
Page 705 and 706: 133. D. R. Romsos and G. A. Leveill
Page 707 and 708: 169. T. Ide, H. Kobayashi, L. Ashak
Page 709 and 710: 207. A. B. Awad and E. A. Zepp. Alt
Page 711 and 712: 246. Y. B. Kim, R. Nakajima, T. Mat
Page 713 and 714: 23 Lipid-Based Synthetic Fat Substi
Page 715 and 716: operations, and in theory, can repl
Page 717 and 718: Table 3 Types of Lipid-Based Fat Su
Page 719 and 720: Figure 1 Structure of sucrose polye
Page 721 and 722: Figure 3 Synthetic scheme for olest
Page 723 and 724: Figure 5 Structure of sorbitol poly
Page 725 and 726: Figure 8 Structure of raffinose pol
Page 727 and 728: Figure 11 Structure of methyl galac
Page 729 and 730: Table 4 Some Properties of Sucrose
Page 731 and 732: Figure 15 Structure of trialkoxytri
Page 733 and 734: Figure 19 Structure of polysiloxane
Page 735 and 736:
inversely related to the degree of
Page 737 and 738:
Table 8 Some Nutritional Uses of No
Page 739 and 740:
genetic assay in Chinese hamster ov
Page 741 and 742:
IX. PERSPECTIVES With the approval
Page 743 and 744:
30. L. Osipow, F. D. Snell, D. Marr
Page 745 and 746:
72. K. W. Miller and P. H. Long. A
Page 747 and 748:
24 Food Applications of Lipids FRAN
Page 749 and 750:
Table 3 Typical Fatty Acid Composit
Page 751 and 752:
are significant differences in oil
Page 753 and 754:
Table 6 Production and Disappearanc
Page 755 and 756:
and margarine should be pronounced
Page 757 and 758:
Table 8 Approximate Fatty Acid Comp
Page 759 and 760:
egions of the world. In addition to
Page 761 and 762:
50-55% fat. Production figures for
Page 763 and 764:
utter with up to 5% of another fat
Page 765 and 766:
market with high overrun and good s
Page 767 and 768:
11. D. Hettinga. Butter. In: Bailey
Page 769 and 770:
25 Lipid Biotechnology KUMAR D. MUK
Page 771 and 772:
Table 1 Lipid Content and Levels of
Page 773 and 774:
as 80% lipids of which about 90% ar
Page 775 and 776:
Table 6 Wax Esters Formed by Acinet
Page 777 and 778:
Some other biosurfactants include e
Page 779 and 780:
Figure 6 Microbial production of hy
Page 781 and 782:
Figure 9 Microbial production of ke
Page 783 and 784:
Figure 12 Microbial production of k
Page 785 and 786:
Table 8 Specificity of Triacylglyce
Page 787 and 788:
Figure 16 Lipase-catalyzed transest
Page 789 and 790:
Figure 20 Preparation of structured
Page 791 and 792:
Figure 24 Preparation of monoacylgl
Page 793 and 794:
Fatty acid esters of polyols are us
Page 795 and 796:
Figure 29 Specificity constants in
Page 797 and 798:
Figure 31 Preparation of concentrat
Page 799 and 800:
Figure 35 Enrichment of very long c
Page 801 and 802:
B. Phospholipases Figure 38 shows t
Page 803 and 804:
Lysophosphatidic acid has been prep
Page 805 and 806:
Figure 41 Transesterification of ph
Page 807 and 808:
Figure 46 Enzymatic production of h
Page 809 and 810:
Figure 50 Hydration of linoleic aci
Page 811 and 812:
Figure 51 Principle of enzymatic de
Page 813 and 814:
13. E. Molina Grima, J. A. Sánchez
Page 815 and 816:
53. M. Powalla, S. Lang, and V. Wra
Page 817 and 818:
96. R. Schuch and K. D. Mukherjee.
Page 819 and 820:
138. K. D. Mukherjee and I. Kiewitt
Page 821 and 822:
179. U. T. Bornscheuer, H. Stamatis
Page 823 and 824:
222. H. Stamatis, V. Sereti, and F.
Page 825 and 826:
265. S. R. Moore and G. P. McNeill.
Page 827 and 828:
303. C. Virto, I. Svensson, and P.
Page 829 and 830:
343. E. Blee and F. Schuber. Regio-
Page 831 and 832:
26 Microbial Lipases JOHN D. WEETE
Page 833 and 834:
ation. Fungal lipases typically exi
Page 835 and 836:
of buffer A containing 1 M ammonium
Page 837 and 838:
without shaking for 30 minutes, whe
Page 839 and 840:
the C domain of the protein through
Page 841 and 842:
Figure 2 (Continued) Figure 3 Schem
Page 843 and 844:
on the substrate and presence or ab
Page 845 and 846:
Table 3 Selectivities of Multiple E
Page 847 and 848:
lanuginosa, C. antarctica B, Rhizop
Page 849 and 850:
10. C. T. Hou and T. M. Johnston. S
Page 851 and 852:
53. C. C. Akoh. Enzymatic synthesis
Page 853 and 854:
94. D. M. Lawson, A. M. Brzozowski,
Page 855 and 856:
135. B. K. Yang and J. P. Chen. Gel
Page 857 and 858:
27 Enzymatic Interesterification WE
Page 859 and 860:
esterification of butterfat at 40
Page 861 and 862:
also found to decrease the crystall
Page 863 and 864:
T c than animal fats. The T c for v
Page 865 and 866:
in the oxyanion hole is the amino a
Page 867 and 868:
of the interface as a measure of su
Page 869 and 870:
Figure 11 Catalytic mechanism for l
Page 871 and 872:
Figure 13 Triacylglycerol products
Page 873 and 874:
imization of interesterification, a
Page 875 and 876:
supports include high losses of act
Page 877 and 878:
is a thin layer located directly ne
Page 879 and 880:
volume per year. The volumetric act
Page 881 and 882:
and removal of reactants and produc
Page 883 and 884:
vinyl chloride. In a membrane such
Page 885 and 886:
of the enzyme. Animal and plant lip
Page 887 and 888:
esters as surface active agents dur
Page 889 and 890:
14. P. Kalo, H. Huotari, and M. Ant
Page 891 and 892:
57. F. Pabai, S. Kermasha, and A. M
Page 893 and 894:
94. J. Kurashige. Enzymatic convers
Page 895 and 896:
28 Structured Lipids CASIMIR C. AKO
Page 897 and 898:
Figure 2 Structure of a physical mi
Page 899 and 900:
2. Medium Chain Fatty Acids and Tri
Page 901 and 902:
Figure 4 Pathway for eicosanoid bio
Page 903 and 904:
leukotrienes (hydroxy fatty acids a
Page 905 and 906:
Figure 7 Structure of Benefat (bran
Page 907 and 908:
cause of the huge capital investmen
Page 909 and 910:
Figure 8 Reaction scheme showing ac
Page 911 and 912:
alters the native conformation of t
Page 913 and 914:
Table 6 Advantages of Enzymatic App
Page 915 and 916:
Figure 13 Stereochemical configurat
Page 917 and 918:
IV. NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICAL APPLICA
Page 919 and 920:
Table 9 Factors That Affect Outlook
Page 921 and 922:
27. G. O. Burr and M. D. Burr. A ne
Page 923 and 924:
69. M. Reslow, P. Aldercreutz, and
Page 925 and 926:
113. C. J. Gollaher, E. S. Swenson,
Page 927 and 928:
29 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids and
Page 929 and 930:
olive (Olea europea), and avocado (
Page 931 and 932:
Table 2 (Continued) Fatty acid a Sp
Page 933 and 934:
2. Basic Features The functional un
Page 935 and 936:
Hydroxy-Acyl ACP dehydrase (Crotony
Page 937 and 938:
Figure 1 Steps of fatty acid biosyn
Page 939 and 940:
The three KAS isoforms are assigned
Page 941 and 942:
chain length acyl-ACP residues, and
Page 943 and 944:
10-carbon and 14- to 16-carbon acyl
Page 945 and 946:
In developing castor seed, BC and A
Page 947 and 948:
(viz., seed, fruit) genes, and this
Page 949 and 950:
Figure 4 Fatty acid modification re
Page 951 and 952:
12-MO, the cDNA for the enzyme has
Page 953 and 954:
Table 5 Enzyme Activities Involved
Page 955 and 956:
of reactivity is also supported by
Page 957 and 958:
tems, PTAP is a likely candidate fo
Page 959 and 960:
ifying 18:1 �9 and deacylating 18
Page 961 and 962:
oils (rich in 18:3 �6,9,12), and
Page 963 and 964:
eticulum subpopulations also finds
Page 965 and 966:
CPT (DAG ↔ PC) Extensive involvem
Page 967 and 968:
available (cf. Sec. V.C.4 and Ref.
Page 969 and 970:
erol backbone of triacylglycerols c
Page 971 and 972:
14. E. Heinz. Biosynthesis of polyu
Page 973 and 974:
56. R. C. Clough, A. L. Matthis, S.
Page 975 and 976:
91. R. J. Heath and C. O. Rock. Eno
Page 977 and 978:
124. R. Schuch, F. M. Brück, M. Br
Page 979 and 980:
Kader and P. Mazliak, eds.). Kluwer
Page 981 and 982:
197. Y. Cao, K. Oo, and A. H. C. Hu
Page 983 and 984:
241. M. C. Dobarganes, G. Márquez-
Page 985 and 986:
30 Genetic Engineering of Crops Tha
Page 987 and 988:
existing genes in the host plant ge
Page 989 and 990:
It becomes the plant breeder’s jo
Page 991 and 992:
previously mentioned low-linolenic
Page 993 and 994:
develop and apply methods, evaluate
Page 995 and 996:
enzyme with high activity for placi
Page 997 and 998:
activity in the oil palm mesocarp s
Page 999 and 1000:
Figure 4 Commercial applications of
Page 1001 and 1002:
and mildness. Because the perennial
Page 1003 and 1004:
In the context of developing increa
Page 1005 and 1006:
occurs esterified at the sn-2 posit
Page 1007 and 1008:
as high as coconut or palm kernel o
Page 1009 and 1010:
systems. Key to assessing the oppor
Page 1011 and 1012:
property encouraged us to look for
Page 1013 and 1014:
mercial lauric fats based on both P
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Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology

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