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PUNJABIS 619
village may be dominated by a single zamindar biraderi or, more often, will
include segments of several zamindar biraderis, of different qaumslzats, contending
for political and economic hegemony over the local population of kammis,
sharecroppers and tenants. Individual zamindars and kammis solidify their
relationships by entering into long-term contracts for the performance of work—
such as harvesting, sweeping, clothes washing or smithery—in exchange for
fixed quantities of grain and other subsistence commodities.
The pivot of social life for Punjabis, rich and poor, is the household (ghar),
conceived as the group which contributes to and eats from a single hearth (chula).
The household encompasses the personal bonds of marriage and parentage and
provides the framework of care, support and instruction through which an individual
is morally and legally incorporated in the society at large. The household
also serves as the basis for economic organization. Not only are daily activities
organized in terms of it, but so are the principal forms of private wealth and
productive assets, including labor. Members of a household must pool their
earnings and engage in joint decision making regarding savings, investment and
major transactions. The schooling and supervision of children, attending the aged
or sick and holding life-cycle rites are tasks coped with similarly. Residential
separation does not necessarily preclude these practices. Some of the largest,
most extensive business empires in the country are managed in this way—
essentially as household enterprises—as are most of the independently held
farms, shops and trades.
Families form and develop within the fold of the patriarchally or fraternally
governed ghar. While a man's daughters are destined to be given away in
marriage by the time they are 15 or so, his sons remain a part of his ghar
throughout his active lifetime, even after having children of their own. Upon
his death partition of property does not occur right away; instead his sons continue
their association for some time afterwards, often for many years. In such cases
the elder brother assumes the role of household head, and typically his wife
takes charge as the senior woman of the establishment. However, stress and
strains between brothers' competing family interests eventually lead to separation
and the beginning of new ghars. Ideals of household unity are then upheld anew.
Thus, Punjabi households may grow exceedingly large and complex before
splitting into smaller, nuclear family-based units.
Differences in male and female rights of inheritance underly the structure and
continuity of the Punjabi household. All substantial property, such as land,
houses, livestock and businesses, passes in the patriline and is divided equally
among a man's sons after he dies, or retires, and his sons partition their joint
ghar. Daughters and sisters receive their share of the estate at the time of their
wedding in the form of dowries consisting of jewelry, clothing, domestic equipment
and the like. Only some of the Punjabi elite conform to the Shariah in
allowing daughters to inherit substantial productive assets.
The preservation and enhancement of familial izzat (honor) are prime concerns
in Punjabi society. Izzat is preserved by offering generous hospitality to guests,