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808 TURKMEN
locations in the family's tent or house; they must be reserved in manner and
avoid light conversation or smoking in the presence of their father. A younger
brother must show similar respect to an older brother. The subordination of wives
to husbands is even greater. When a husband's guests, or older brothers, are
present, a wife must cover her mouth with her head cloth and not speak. She
must sit quietly in a section of the tent or house reserved for people of low status
and quickly obey any orders from her husband or his older brothers. The relationship
of a woman to her father-in-law and mother-in-law makes the same
demands but with greater stringency. This may be harsh, but it does maintain a
household as a well-disciplined group which is efficient in organizing economic
production.
Religion is another area in which there has been little change in Turkmen life.
The Turkmen are, on the whole, devoutly religious. Most of them say the prayers
which are required of Muslims five times a day, and they observe Ramadan.
Men who can afford the expense make the pilgrimage to Mecca and afterward
are respected as hajjis. Women of wealthy families often accompany a male
relative to Mecca and also become hajjis. Religious teachers are honored and
influential members of each Turkmen community. Also, Sufi orders such as the
Naqshbandi are represented in many Turkmen communities. Frequently, religious
teachers are also leaders of a Sufi order.
At present, most Turkmen wish to preserve their ethnic identity, their religion
and many aspects of their traditional family life. However, few Turkmen believe
political independence is a realistic goal. In all probability, they will remain an
ethnic minority divided among large states in which they often are second-class
citizens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Allworth, Edward, ed. The Nationality Question in Soviet Central Asia. New York:
Praeger, 1973.
Bacon, Elizabeth E. Central Asians Under Russian Rule. Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1966.
Barthold, V. V. "A History of the Turkman People." In Four Studies of the History of
Central Asia, by V. V. Barthold. Translated by V. and T. Minorsky. Vol. 3.
Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962.
Caroe, Sir Olaf K. Soviet Empire: The Turks of Central Asia and Stalinism. New York:
St. Martin's Press, 1953.
Coon, Carleton S. Caravan: Story of the Middle East. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, 1969.
Freykin, Z. G. Turkmenskaya S.S.R. Moscow: n.p., 1954. (Translation on deposit,
Human Relations Area Files, New Haven, Conn.)
Irons, William. "Is Yomut Social Behavior Adaptive?" In Sociobiology; Beyond Nature!