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MADURESE 461
arteries or his belly. The threat of carok is always present among Madurese
when prestige and honor are at stake. The motives for carok include adultery,
quarrels about goods and cattle and losing face in public. Rarely does a victim
of carok survive, and a feud between the families or parties involved can be the
consequence. (Javanese believe the Madurese are a violent people and express
fear about visiting the island of Madura.) To protect oneself from the threat of
carok, or to find help in a village election or a bullrace, one consults a dykun
or a kiyai.
The modernist Islamic movement, Muhammadiya, has followers only among
intellectuals, officials and teachers in the regional capitals. The reformist ideas
of this movement, namely, adherence to the Quran only and rejection of ancestor
and saint worship, find little appeal among rural Madurese, who are more oriented
to the local kiyai and their religious conceptions.
Change in the sense of adaptation of modern values is slow in the rural areas
of Madura. Secular education has not yet been fully accepted. In 1974 more
than 50 percent of the population was illiterate. The Madurese prefer religious
education to secular education. Some of the religious schools, especially in the
interior of Madura, are centers of the Naqshbandiyya tariqa (Sufi brotherhood).
Traditional values are strong among the Madurese. The rules given by the
ancestors represent the adat, custom, and must be respected to gain health and
prosperity. On the other hand people are expected to be good Muslims and gain
selamat in this life and afterwards. In short, both religion and adat hold essential
values for life. As the Madurese say: "Whereas religion is my soul, adat is my
breath."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Atmosoedirdjo. Vergelijkende Adatrechtelijke Studie van Oost-javase Madoerezen en
Oesingers. Amsterdam: Poortpers, 1952.
Farjon, I. Madura and Surrounding Islands: An Annotated Bibliography, 1860-1942.
Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde, Bibliographic Series, No.
7. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980.
Graaf, H. J. de, and Pigeaud, Th. G. Th. De eerste Moslimse Vorstendommen op Java.
Studien over de staatkunige Geschiedenis van de 15de en 16de eeuw. Verhandelingen
van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde, No. 69.
The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974.
Leunissen, J. Monografi Daerah Jawah Timur. Vols. 1-3. Jakarta: Department Pendidikan
dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia, 1977.
Niehof, A. "The Family Planning Fieldworker and Village Politics on Madura, Indonesia."
In Local Leadership and Program Implementation in Indonesia, edited
by Quarles van Ufford et al. Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit, 1981.
Touwen-Bouwsma, E. De Barisanorganisatie van Madura: Nieuwe eisen aan een oud