(VCCEP) Tier 1 Pilot Submission for BENZENE - Tera

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5.5 Pure Benzene Consumption Most benzene that is isolated as a pure chemical is used as a feedstock for the production of other chemicals. Table 5.7 presents the chemicals and products that are derived from benzene (ATSDR, 1997, 2005; CMR, 2006; U.S. EPA, 1998a). Although benzene was historically used as an industrial solvent, solvent use ceased many years ago (U.S. EPA, 1998a). Pure benzene however, may be sold to specialized laboratories for use in controlled environments. Table 5.7: Major Uses of Benzene Isolated from Petroleum Products Chemical Produced from Benzene Benzene VCCEP Submission March 2006 Percent of Consumption (2005) a 27 Typical Uses for Derived Chemical Ethylbenzene 53% Intermediate for styrene, which is used to manufacture plastics Cumene 18% Intermediate for phenol (used in manufacture of epoxy resins and caprolactam for nylon) and acetone (used in manufacture of solvents and plastics) Cyclohexane 13% Intermediate used to manufacture nylon and nylon intermediates Nitrobenzenes 7% Intermediate for aniline, which is used to manufacture isocyanates for plastics, dyes and polyurethane foam Linear Alkylbenzenes 3% Intermediate used to manufacture surfactants Other (e.g., resorcinol, 6% Resorcinol is used in the manufacture of hydroquinone, resins, dyes and pharmaceuticals. chlorobenzene, or Hydroquinone is used as a rubber antioxidant maleic anhydride) and in developing black-and-white photographic film. Chlorobenzene is used as pesticide solvent and as an intermediate in manufacture of nitrochlorobenzene (used in dyes and agricultural products). Maleic anhydride is used in manufacturing polyester resins, alkyd coating resins, permanent press resins (textiles), fumaric and tartaric acids, lubricant additives, plasticizers, agricultural chemicals and is a prepreservative for oils and fats. a Chemical Week, January 4/11, 2006. 5.6 Production and Consumption of Refined Petroleum Products Benzene is a minor constituent of crude oil. The petroleum product that is most likely to contain benzene is gasoline. Unleaded automobile gasoline generally has a benzene content of about 1% (U.S. EPA, 1998a), whereas jet fuel (military and commercial airline) generally has a benzene content less than 0.02% (ATSDR, 1998). Distillate fuel oil (e.g., diesel fuel) has a benzene content of 0.006% by weight (U.S. EPA, 2002a; WHO, 1996). In addition to benzene that is found in crude oil, benzene in automobile gasoline is also formed during the process of catalytic reforming, which is used to increase the octane rating of the naphtha fraction of
gasoline. Aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, contribute to the anti-knock properties (prevention of engine pinging or rattling due to secondary detonations) of unleaded automobile gasoline. Table 5.8 summarizes petroleum based fuel production and consumption volumes (DOE, 2000). Table 5.8: U.S. Petroleum-Based Fuel Production and Consumption U.S. Production or Consumption Rate, 1999 (million gallons per day) a Economic Activity Motor Gasoline Jet Fuel Kerosene Distillate fuel oil Consumption (demand) 354 70 3.1 143 Production (supply) 341 66 2.8 150 Net import to U.S. to meet demand 13 5 0.3 7.3 a Consumption and production volumes based on assumption of 42 gallons per barrel. 5.7 Releases of Benzene to Ambient Air Benzene is released to air during a number of processes including benzene production, benzene use, combustion of fuel (mobile and non-mobile sources), biomass combustion, and miscellaneous processes such as manufacturing of paper or disposal of municipal solid waste. Each of the various sources of benzene emissions to air is described in detail by the EPA (U.S. EPA, 1998a). Table 5.9 lists various emission sources of benzene and the section number where more information can be found in this EPA reference. The emissions from most of these identified sources are regulated and limited by the federal government. Table 5.9: Summary of Sources of Benzene to Ambient Air Type of Activity Process or Source Section of EPA (1998) Releases from benzene production Releases from benzene use Releases from benzene use (continued) Benzene VCCEP Submission March 2006 Catalytic reforming (straight run gasoline) 28 Section 4.1: Catalytic reforming/separation process Catalytic dealkylation (toluene) Section 4.2: Toluene dealkylation and toluene disproportionation process Steam cracking (pyrolysis gasoline) Section 4.3: Ethylene production Destructive distillation (coke oven) Section 4.4: Coke oven and coke by-product recovery plants Ethylbenzene and styrene production Section 5.1: Ethylbenzene and styrene production Cumene production Section 5.3: Cumene production Section 5.4: Phenol production Cyclohexane production Section 5.2: Cyclohexane production Nitrobenzene production Section 5.5: Nitrobenzene production Section 5.6: Aniline production Alkylbenzene production Section 5.8: Linear alkylbenzene production Chlorobenzene production Section 5.7: Chlorobenzene production Production of other chemicals (e.g., Section 5.9: Other organic chemical production resorcinol or hydroquinone) Use as an industrial solvent (currently Section 5.10: Benzene use as a solvent being phased out)
Page 1 and 2: Voluntary Children’s Chemical Eva
Page 3 and 4: 6.1.2 Types of Adverse Health Effec
Page 5 and 6: Glossary of Terms μg Microgram AA
Page 7 and 8: STEL Short-Term Exposure Limit TEAM
Page 9 and 10: enzene induced pancytopenias can pr
Page 11 and 12: A fertility study in female rats ex
Page 13 and 14: estimate is very conservative both
Page 15 and 16: 2.0 BASIS FOR INCLUSION OF BENZENE
Page 17 and 18: 2.5 Air Monitoring Data Several of
Page 19 and 20: Table 3.1: Proposed Benzene AEGL Va
Page 21 and 22: 4.0 Regulatory Overview This sectio
Page 23 and 24: passenger vehicles operated at cold
Page 25 and 26: Benzene has been designated a hazar
Page 27 and 28: products had ceased” [46 Fed. Reg
Page 29 and 30: 5.0 CHEMICAL OVERVIEW This section
Page 31 and 32: Table 5.3: Environmental Fate and T
Page 33: general, the production rate is abo
Page 37 and 38: The EPA Office of Air Quality Plann
Page 39 and 40: Benzene VCCEP Submission March 2006
Page 41 and 42: Table 5.11: Benzene Releases for Al
Page 43 and 44: 6.1.2.2 Chronic Toxicity Toxicity a
Page 45 and 46: 6.1.2.2e Other Hematopoietic Malign
Page 47 and 48: that transient, high peak exposures
Page 49 and 50: absorption compared to inhalation,
Page 51 and 52: increased risk of disease. It shoul
Page 53 and 54: The National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Page 55 and 56: exposure. This was also supported b
Page 57 and 58: follow-up of this same cohort, Wong
Page 59 and 60: development of MDS)and/or AML. It i
Page 61 and 62: quantification of benzene air conce
Page 63 and 64: 4.0, 95% CI = 1.8-9.3) but not ALL
Page 65 and 66: 6.2 Benzene Toxicology—Animal Haz
Page 67 and 68: eakage and loss was comparable whet
Page 71 and 72: Table 6.2: In Vivo Genotoxicity of
Page 73 and 74: Table 6.2 Continued: In Vivo Genoto
Page 75 and 76: 6.2.2.3 Transplacental Genotoxicity
Page 77 and 78: induce solid tumors in animals in t
Page 79 and 80: mice in the 300-ppm group had bilat
Page 81 and 82: decreases in maternal weight gain,
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Benzene VCCEP Submission March 2006
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increased resorptions. The effects
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proposed that transplacental effect
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glycerol lysis time, and incidence
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6.2.5.2 Chronic Toxicity Repeat-dos
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LOAELs for carcinogenic effects in
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the measurements of doses are suspe
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intracellular pathogen, Listeria mo
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2. Evidence indicates that myelotox
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7.0 Exposure Assessments This secti
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throughout childhood, see Table 7.1
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7.2 Sources of Benzene Exposure Chi
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Table 7.3: Outdoor Ambient Air Benz
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Table 7.5: County-Wide 24-hour Ambi
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Age-specific benzene intakes are pr
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Table 7.9: Total ADDs for Exposure
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Table 7.10 (cont.) Study Location a
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Table 7.11: Summary of Benzene Meas
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factor change attributable to benze
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where: ADD = average daily dose (mg
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Table 7.16: Total ADDS from In-Home
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Table 7.18: Summary of Age-Specific
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Table 7.20: Summary Statistics for
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In-Vehicle Exposures In-vehicle exp
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Table 7.30: Average of Mean In-Vehi
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e similar to those in other U.S. st
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vehicle); the total amount of time
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use of small non-road engine equipm
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Children may be exposed to benzene
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Table 7.36: Typical School Year Wee
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An addition of less than 1 µg/m 3
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In the mid-1990s, the American Petr
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Table 7.44: Dermal Benzene Absorpti
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Table 7.47: Product Names and Manuf
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Table 7.49: Summary of Age-Specific
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For children and non-smoking adults
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Benzene Exposure (mg/kg-day) Figure
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ackground pathways of exposure, inc
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8.1.3 EPA Default Risk Assessment N
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8.2.1 Potential for Increased Sensi
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These findings illustrate examples
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information associated with benzene
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species are more sensitive than oth
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8.2.3.1 Point of Departure for Non-
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Cancer risks were calculated using
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NONCANCER HAZARD QUOTIENT 1.00 0.09
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Table 8.1. Derivation of noncancer
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Table 8.3. Points of departure for
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Table 8.4. (cont.) Noncancer Hazard
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Table 8.5. Noncancer hazard quotien
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Table 8.6. Cancer risk estimates as
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Table 8.7. Indoor air comparison (i
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Table 8.9. Noncancer margins of saf
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Table 8.10. Noncancer margins of sa
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Table 8.11. Indoor air comparison (
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Table 8.13. (cont.) Notes: Cancer M
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the continental U.S. for each leuke
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in significant reductions in benzen
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Aksoy M (1977) Leukemia in workers
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Austin, C.C., Wang, D., Ecobichon,
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Buckley, J.D., Ribison, L.L., Swoti
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CONCAWE. 1996. Scientific basis for
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Ding, X-J, Li, Y., Ding, Y. el al.
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Forni, A. 1994. Comparison of chrom
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Goldwater LJ (1941) Disturbances in
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Hsieh, G.C., Parker, R.D., and Shar
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Jo, W.K. and Park, K.H. 1998. Expos
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Lange, A., Smolik, R., Zatonski, W.
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Lynge E, Andersen A, Nilsson R, Bar
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Meadows, A., Obringer, A. M. O., Ba
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Nedelcheva V, Gut I, Soucek P, Tich
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Picciani, D. 1979. Cytogenetic stud
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Ross D, Siegel D, Gibson NW, Pachec
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Sathiakumar, N., Delzell, E., Cole,
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Smith, M. T., Zhang, L. P., Wang, Y
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Thomas, K.W., Pellizzari, E.D., Cla
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United States Environmental Protect
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URS. 2002. Air Quality Trend in the
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Weisel, C.P. 2002. Assessing exposu
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Xing, S.G., Shi, X., Wu, Z.L., Chen
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(VCCEP) Tier 1 Pilot Submission for BENZENE - Tera

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