A Beginner's View of Our Electric Universe - New

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The four fundamental states of matter We are all familiar with solids, liquids and gases, but have we ever heard of these with the term ‘plasma’ mentioned as well? Plasma belongs here as it is also a form of matter. Altogether, these four states of matter are associated with every form of physical thing we can see or think of in our world and in our universe. Our four states of matter are (1) plasma (2) gas (3) liquid (4) solid. To help with drawing mental pictures, I will base the following explanations around something we are all familiar with by referring throughout to the various forms in which find water and to its constituent elements. Water is a molecule H 2 O that has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. ‘Solid’ is the fourth state of matter. Water ice, just like iron or diamond, is considered a solid because its molecules are aligned rigidly in a crystalline structure. Ice forms at 0˚Celsius (Centigrade) because the heat energy contained in the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen that form 55 | Some basic theory that will help its molecules is very low. In other words, the electrons of the atoms that make up the water molecules are not oscillating with enough energy to cause breakage to the bonds they form between the molecules of the crystalline structure, so everything is held together to produce solid ice. Lattice structure of Ice © author © author Hydrogen Atom Water Molecule H 2O ‘Liquid’ is the third state of matter. When the temperature of ice rises to just above 0˚C it begins to melt and become liquid water. This process occurs because the heat energy contained in the atoms has increased enough for electrons to begin breaking the bonds between the molecules of the crystalline structure of the ice. In other words, the energetic oscillations of the electrons of the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of the water ice molecules have been increased to a great enough level through the application of external energy, that separation takes place between the intermolecule bonds. This can also be seen as an overall increase in energy stored within the ice structure. A general point to make here is that because the molecules are less restricted, liquids are considered to be ‘less mechanically stable’ than solids. Unstructured water molecules © author Oxygen Atom Hydrogen Atom Hydrogen atoms sharing their single electron with those in the outer shell of the Oxygen Atom.
56 | Some basic theory that will help ‘Gas’ is the second state of matter. As the temperature of liquid water rises, some of its molecules will separate off and rise away into the air as water vapour gas. Sparse molecules of water vapour © author With no deliberate application of energy, this is what we would consider to be the normal evaporation of water as it turns into a gas that is lighter than air then drifts away. We get precisely the same result but much more of it when we deliberately heat water up so that it evaporates rapidly, like when we raise its temperature to boiling point at sea level of 100˚C and it turns into steam. During this process, the molecules give up their relationships with each other to become a thinly dispersed molecular gas where the individual molecules float about in a random fashion. Beyond this process we can, through special means, separate the individual water molecules into their oxygen and hydrogen component gases. Atoms of hydrogen and oxygen separated © author For the level of understanding we want to achieve, this process of increasing or reducing the energy that electrons have in order to bring about the various gas, liquid and solid states, can be considered as the same process that applies to all types of matter. (Note: Some solid combinations of matter take shortcuts and do not appear to work like this - an obvious example is wood - you cannot heat wood and produce liquid before a gas, it breaks down and goes initially to other solid matter and gases.) For our overall discussion, however, it is useful to accept for now that at large structure levels, where we have combinations of molecules and elements that make up all physical things in our environment, the basic conversion rules as described here will apply. Here is another example ... Think about steel turning to a liquid form when heated to its melting point then separating into atoms of the gases Iron, Carbon, Manganese, Phosphorous, Sulphur and Silicon as the temperature is increased even further. In a broad sense, when considering matter, it all seems to come down to various amounts of energy being present at the molecular and elemental bonding levels that gives us the range of materials in our world with which we are familiar - the air we breathe, the water we swim in, and the land we walk on - and every other physical thing you can think of as well. Most gases, liquids and solids share an additionally important property, this being that they have electrons which to some extent can freely move about or be easily coaxed into doing so. If an appropriate force is applied collectively to these free electrons to make them move in the same direction, then this can be considered as producing (or ‘inducing’ being the more correct word to use) an electric current to flow in that particular form of matter. The point here is that all forms of matter can theoretically conduct an electric current; it just depends
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A Beginner’s View of Our Electric
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Contents Dedication Acknowledgement
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science book, this book will requir
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Dedication For my wife Nora, my swe
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Gerard, your eye for detail has bee
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Foreword I continue to be amazed at
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And so why should the theories behi
Page 16 and 17: After having spent a good deal of t
Page 18 and 19: In terms of what I felt I could do
Page 20 and 21: In addition, my desire is to by-pas
Page 22 and 23: Each and every one of these things
Page 24 and 25: He believed that by including dark
Page 26 and 27: They are further thought of as star
Page 28 and 29: White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars, Pulsar
Page 30 and 31: Redshift [1-10] , in the context of
Page 32 and 33: We have all seen Craters [1-13] in
Page 34 and 35: Despite this being the case it seem
Page 36 and 37: There have of course been very impo
Page 38 and 39: Having reached this point with grav
Page 40 and 41: make. People are not born to be sci
Page 42 and 43: The process of nuclear fusion is no
Page 44 and 45: We looked earlier at dark energy as
Page 46 and 47: This is just not possible to reconc
Page 48 and 49: to the effects of assumed, colossal
Page 50 and 51: They have therefore failed on every
Page 52 and 53: Comets were first described in 1950
Page 54 and 55: “If the Earth’s orbit were repr
Page 56 and 57: What if this powerful process based
Page 58 and 59: One such very expensive experiment
Page 60 and 61: … Young stars have been found in
Page 62 and 63: In the normal state where everythin
Page 64 and 65: We will go back to our model of a s
Page 68 and 69: on how much of an ‘encouraging fo
Page 70 and 71: Dark Mode: (Low Energy) • • •
Page 72 and 73: If a hydrogen atom has its single e
Page 74 and 75: 63 | Some basic theory that will he
Page 76 and 77: On the domestic scene, we often fin
Page 78 and 79: We experience two types of magnetis
Page 80 and 81: Getting back to electric currents a
Page 82 and 83: Here, the often powerful radiation
Page 84 and 85: This twisted form will come as no s
Page 86 and 87: These are all examples that involve
Page 88 and 89: • • • • • • • • Rad
Page 90 and 91: Helium is a gas with 2 protons and
Page 92 and 93: 5 | The work of the honourable but
Page 94 and 95: Benjamin Franklin (1706 - 1790) was
Page 96 and 97: Birkeland’s name will be remember
Page 98 and 99: Here are some of Alfvén’s other
Page 100 and 101: Ralph E Juergens (1924 - 1979) [5-6
Page 102 and 103: This has been a look back into hist
Page 104 and 105: Donald E Scott. [5-11] is the third
Page 106 and 107: Many of these ‘star objects’ ap
Page 108 and 109: These variables are: regions of vas
Page 110 and 111: If a straight split of a star is ac
Page 112 and 113: There is one other item to highligh
Page 114 and 115: Producing planets and moons: I ment
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Here, it has been suggested that ju
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Given what has been said so far, go
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As development progressed in radio
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The way we do this today, however,
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Note that Nova is the name given to
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Is this a pipe-dream? I do not know
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Here is what this experiment infers
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This time, however, the types of ma
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Visually, it appears to us that bot
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that have no other significant valu
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In real life, a capacitor has two m
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The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud
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As mentioned previously, comet Holm
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There are many other visual observa
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Astro-scientists interpret these pl
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Asteroids and comets are fundamenta
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When meteoroids become meteors as t
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Geology thoughts: I have looked clo
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Just before the copper projectile s
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It seems once again that what was k
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We can closely inspect many craters
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Consider the ‘doctored’ image o
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The central peaks often seen inside
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Vast areas of the hemispheres of pl
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How is it that the small bodies of
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Monument Valley Arizona - Source Wi
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The similarities between this chasm
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‘As seen in numerous counterparts
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It may therefore be NASA and ESA th
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These gullies have an almost errati
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Flat Top Mesa It may just be me, bu
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In terms of the job I originally se
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Given that these electrical process
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We need to find the more worthy sci
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important reason behind me writing
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And finally ... Why should any of t
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[1-13] Wikipedia article - “Impac
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Chapter Five References: [5-1] Kris
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[6-23] Wal Thornhill, “Mystery of
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[6-5 ] TPOD - “Meteor Crater in A
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