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— The role and function of goddesses in Mesopotamia — possessions stand in direct relation to their importance and role in the social and ideological network of the city. Those goddesses who boasted of a cult-place in the king’s palace were apparently linked to royalty. Those who displayed, in their own temple, the lama-god, were directly connected with the king’s well-being and those who guarded his symbols of power were in charge of the exercising of his power. Those who possessed their own administrative buildings or farms seem to have been economically independent. All of them fulfilled functions for sections of the population other than the ruling one. When looking at the personnel engaged in the various temples, it is noteworthy that we see a division of men and women. For example, in Nippur’s Inanna-Ishtar temple, men and women working in the mills had separate rooms. When men and women had clearly separate religious activities, this would indicate that such a division would also have been practised in secular life. We may, however, not jump to the conclusion that in Mesopotamia a discrimination against women was accepted. It is particularly notable that some of the goddesses had a very powerful position. It is true that some major gods had rather insignificant spouses, but also the opposite is true. The husband of the healing goddess Ninisinna is usually taken to be Pabilsag, who already in early times replaced Ningirsu and later Ninurta as her husband. During the second millennium BC he is encountered as husband to other healing goddesses. The husband of Ninhursaga (the king’s wet-nurse) is the rather pale Shulpa’e whose role is difficult to reconstruct in myths and hymns. In addition, the equal division of power between Enlil and Ninlil does not support the idea of a society with widespread discrimination against women – at least not in the upper class. A shining example of of women’s power is Inanna-Ishtar. Her personality is so sparkling and many-sided that a male companion automatically shrinks in her shadow. Her function in the king’s legitimation is proof of the perceived necessity to grant power to a female deity. Inanna-Ishtar’s legendary adventures and her control of the fertility of the whole country are indications that the female principle at times occupied centre stage. It can also be noted that when gods and goddesses are depicted as being wedded to one another, very rarely are we confronted with divine children. The kinship terms father, mother, brother, sister and child are frequently used in legends and hymns, but it would be misleading to interpret such terms in a strict genealogical sense. It is to be assumed that these kinship terms are used metaphorically, indicating a certain hierarchy among the gods. CONCLUSION In this chapter we have begun with the assumption that the realms beyond our physical world are a reflection of the total of human experiences. During the third, second and first millennia BC, Mesopotamia had a complex society, bound together through an intricate net of relationships. Cities could only exist by virtue of an administrative apparatus that was hierarchically maintained. That is why the world of the deities was also hierarchical and complex. We have also noted that the gods do not present an exact mirror image of human beings: they live in an ideal world, they do not toil. Indeed, it is clearly stated in 329
— Brigitte Groneberg — their myths, that the burden of working is delegated from the gods to mankind (Lambert 1969). In this ideal realm of gods we have traced the feminine element by concentrating on a particular case, that of the religious institutions of the city of Nippur. We have seen that feminine deities were being revered in many localities, that their roles and functions ranged widely, that in some cases their resources were spectacular. This could mean that in the human world of Mesopotamia there were also women who were highly respected and honoured, that they could also play many roles and that in the large cities they must have had chances to develop. BIBLIOGRAPHY Biggs, R.D. 2001. ‘Nin-Nibru’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 476. Cavigneaux, F. and M. Krebernik 2000. ‘Nin-eguna’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 347f. –––– and –––– 2001. ‘Nin-gagia’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 351f.; ‘Ninkasi’, ibid. 442–445; ‘Nin-tur’, ibid. 507f.; ‘Nungal’, ibid. 615–618. –––– and –––– 2003. ‘Nin-girgilu’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 62. Dalley, S. 2000. Myths from Mesopotamia. Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Revised Edition. Oxford. Edzard, D.O. 2000. ‘Nin-Isina’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 287f. –––– 2001. ‘Nin-tin-uga’, ‘Nin-tila-uga’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 06. George, A.R. 1993. House Most High. The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian Civilizations 5. Winona Lake, Indiana. –––– 2003. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic. Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts, Vol. I. II. Oxford. Grégoire, J.P. 1979. ‘Le Sceau d’Ea-nisha’, Révue d´Assyriologie et Archéologie 73: 191. Groneberg, B. 2000a. ‘Haus und Schleier in Mesopotamien’. In T. Späth and B. Wagner-Hasel (eds) Frauenwelten in der Antike. Geschlechterordnung und weibliche Lebenspraxis. Stuttgart, Weimar, 1–16. –––– 2000b. Tiere als Symbole von Göttern, TOPOI, Orient–Occident, Suppl. 2. S. 283–320. Lyon. –––– 2004. Die Götter des Zweistromlandes.Kulte, Mythen, Epen. Düsseldorf and Zürich. Heimpel, W. 2001. ‘Ninsiana’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 487f. Hrusˇka, B. 1969. Das spätbabylonische Lehrgedicht ‘Inannas Erhöhung’, Archiv Orientalni 37: 473–522. Hutter, M. 1985. Altorientalische Vorstellungen von der Unterwelt. Literatur- und religionsgeschichtliche Überlegungen zu “Nergal und Ereshkigal”. Orientalia Biblica et Orientalis Band 63. Freiburg, Schweiz, Göttingen. Katz, Dina 2003. The Image of the Nether World in the Sumerian Sources. Bethesda, Maryland. Krebernik, M. 2000. ‘Nin-girida’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 362f. –––– 2000–2001. ‘Ninlil’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 452–462. Lambert, W.G. 1960. Babylonian Wisdom Literature. Oxford. –––– 1967. ‘The Gula Hymn of Bullutsa-rabi (Tafel VIII–XXIII)’, Orientalia 36: 105–132. –––– 1982. ‘The Hymn to the Queen of Nippur’, in G. van Driel et al. 1982. Zikir Shumim. Assyriological Studies Presented to F.R. Kraus on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Studia Francisci Scholten Memoriae Dicata Vol. Quintum. Leiden, 173–218. –––– and A.R. Millard 1969. Atra-hasis. The Babylonian Story of the Flood. With the Sumerian Flood Story by M. Civil. Oxford. Michalowski, P. 2000. ‘Nisaba’, Reallexikon der Assyriologie 9: 575–579. Römer, W.H.Ph. 1965. Sumerische ‘Königshymnen’ der Isin-Zeit. Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui Volume 13. Leiden. 330
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THE BABYLONIAN WORLD As the layers
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THE BABYLONIAN WORLD Edited by Gwe
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* Translation is on p. 591. Lebensa
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— Contents — 11 Food and drink
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ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES 2.1 Sustaini
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— Illustrations — 10.7 Portrait
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CONTRIBUTORS Tzvi Abusch is Rose B
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— Contributors — Dominique Coll
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— Contributors — Frans van Kopp
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— Contributors — Eleanor Robson
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Gwendolyn
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— Introduction — mid-second mil
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— Introduction — that ‘belong
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— Introduction — persisted in t
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— Introduction — who, at differ
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CHAPTER TWO THE WORLD OF BABYLONIAN
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— The world of Babylonian country
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CHAPTER THREE LAND AND LAND USE The
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— Land and land use — past cons
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— Land and land use — Figure 3.
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— Land and land use — December.
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— Land and land use — districts
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— Land and land use — however,
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— Land and land use — BIBLIOGRA
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— Land and land use — ---- 2001
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— Agricultural techniques — Fig
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— Agricultural techniques — Fig
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— Agricultural techniques — Oth
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— Agricultural techniques — wit
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— Agricultural techniques — The
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— Agricultural techniques — Pet
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— Urban form in the first millenn
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CHAPTER SIX ARCHITECTURE IN THE OLD
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— Architecture in the Old Babylon
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CHAPTER SEVEN BABYLONIAN SEALS 1 D
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— Babylonian seals — (a) (b) (c
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— Babylonian seals — Figure 7.6
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— Babylonian seals — ruler he s
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1 1 — Babylonian seals — An ext
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1 1 — Babylonian seals — Figure
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— Babylonian seals — mostly cor
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— Babylonian seals — MacGinnis,
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— Babylonian sources of exotic ra
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CHAPTER NINE CLOTH IN THE BABYLONIA
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— Cloth in the Babylonian World
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CHAPTER TEN THE BABYLONIAN VISUAL I
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— The Babylonian visual image —
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sˇūkil akalu sˇiqi kurunnu eris
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— Food and drink in Babylonia —
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PART III ECONOMIC LIFE 185
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— Johannes Renger — stands in c
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— Johannes Renger — eventually
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— Johannes Renger — fertility o
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— Johannes Renger — utensils ma
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— Johannes Renger — BIBLIOGRAPH
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE OLD BABYLONIAN
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— Anne Goddeeris — of the craft
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— Anne Goddeeris — silver could
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— Anne Goddeeris — waves during
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— Anne Goddeeris — SOME CHARACT
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— Anne Goddeeris — could consis
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN ASPECTS OF SOCIETY
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— Frans van Koppen — its territ
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— Frans van Koppen — Figure 14.
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— Frans van Koppen — The durati
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— Frans van Koppen — for many b
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— Frans van Koppen — provincial
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— Frans van Koppen — BIBLIOGRAP
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN THE BABYLONIAN ECON
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— Michael Jursa — cereal farmin
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— Michael Jursa — were determin
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— Michael Jursa — main point of
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— Michael Jursa — Given these b
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— Michael Jursa — of Joannès 2
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN THE EGIBI FAMILY C
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— Cornelia Wunsch — aside every
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— Cornelia Wunsch — of a hired
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— Cornelia Wunsch — Figure 16.1
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— Cornelia Wunsch — qa = 3600 n
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— Cornelia Wunsch — The committ
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PART IV SOCIETY AND POLITICS 249
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— Petr Charvát — Figure 17.1 S
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— Petr Charvát — In warfare th
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— Petr Charvát — Early Dynasti
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— Petr Charvát — their obligat
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— Petr Charvát — NOTES 1 Coope
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— Petr Charvát — 97 On them cf
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— Petr Charvát — Rehm, Ellen 2
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— Walther Sallaberger — Figure
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— Walther Sallaberger — Babylon
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— Walther Sallaberger — (Maul 2
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— Walther Sallaberger — of good
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— Walther Sallaberger — the bes
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CHAPTER NINETEEN POWER, ECONOMY AND
Page 301 and 302: — Gebhard J. Selz — Figure 19.1
Page 303 and 304: — Gebhard J. Selz — influence o
Page 305 and 306: — Gebhard J. Selz — Mesopotamia
Page 307 and 308: — Gebhard J. Selz — and loan. N
Page 309 and 310: — Gebhard J. Selz — distrust in
Page 311 and 312: CHAPTER TWENTY ARAMEANS AND CHALDEA
Page 313 and 314: — Frederick Mario Fales — and c
Page 315 and 316: — Frederick Mario Fales — level
Page 317 and 318: — Frederick Mario Fales — Figur
Page 319 and 320: — Frederick Mario Fales — Babyl
Page 321 and 322: — Frederick Mario Fales — the w
Page 323 and 324: — Laura D. Steele — experiences
Page 325 and 326: — Laura D. Steele — Babylonian
Page 327 and 328: — Laura D. Steele — Figure 21.1
Page 329 and 330: — Laura D. Steele — Figure 21.2
Page 331 and 332: — Laura D. Steele — as large as
Page 333 and 334: — Laura D. Steele — Babylonian
Page 335 and 336: — Laura D. Steele — novel but l
Page 337 and 338: — Laura D. Steele — Dandamaev,
Page 339 and 340: — Laura D. Steele — ---- (1995b
Page 342 and 343: CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO THE ROLE AND FUN
Page 344 and 345: — The role and function of goddes
Page 356 and 357: — Inanna and Ishtar in the Babylo
Page 372 and 373: — The Babylonian god Marduk — E
Page 374 and 375: — The Babylonian god Marduk — i
Page 376 and 377: — The Babylonian god Marduk — T
Page 378 and 379: — The Babylonian god Marduk — t
Page 380 and 381: — The Babylonian god Marduk — 7
Page 382 and 383: — The Babylonian god Marduk — B
Page 384 and 385: CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE DIVINATION CULT
Page 386 and 387: — Divination culture and the hand
Page 396 and 397: CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX WITCHCRAFT LITER
Page 398 and 399: — Witchcraft literature in Mesopo
Page 400 and 401: — Witchcraft literature in Mesopo
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— Witchcraft literature in Mesopo
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CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN INCANTATIONS W
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— Incantations within Akkadian me
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— Letters in the Amorite world
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— Mathematics, metrology and prof
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who ‘generously bestowed upon [th
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— Babylonian lists of words and s
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CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE GILGAMESH AND TH
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— Gilgamesh and the literature of
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— Mesopotamian astral science —
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CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE LATE BABYLONIA
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— Late Babylonian intellectual li
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PART VII INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Ba
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— David A. Warburton — both Egy
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— David A. Warburton — But thes
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Table 34.1 Middle Babylonian period
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— David A. Warburton — forces i
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— David A. Warburton — of Esarh
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— David A. Warburton — but such
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— David A. Warburton — contrast
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— David A. Warburton — set off
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— Trevor Bryce — Figure 35.1 Th
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— Trevor Bryce — in the region
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— Trevor Bryce — But for the re
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— Trevor Bryce — an acrimonious
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— Trevor Bryce — king Kashtilia
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— Trevor Bryce — Gasche, H., Ar
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— P. S. Vermaak — In our presen
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— P. S. Vermaak — The spelling
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— P. S. Vermaak — Nippur (moder
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— P. S. Vermaak — such as Ugari
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— P. S. Vermaak — Brown, S. (19
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— P. S. Vermaak — ---- and Vida
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— Hannes D. Galter — 2000 BCE,
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— Hannes D. Galter — The reason
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— Hannes D. Galter — Figure 37.
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— Hannes D. Galter — Figure 37.
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— Hannes D. Galter — Mesopotami
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— Hannes D. Galter — new lord o
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— Hannes D. Galter — ---- 2006
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— Baruch A. Levine — Biblical l
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— Baruch A. Levine — presented
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— Baruch A. Levine — Among othe
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— Baruch A. Levine — the word o
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— Baruch A. Levine — when the c
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— Baruch A. Levine — as coming
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— Baruch A. Levine — punishment
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— Baruch A. Levine — The prophe
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— Baruch A. Levine — Habakkuk
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— Baruch A. Levine — The same c
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CHAPTER THIRTY-NINE THE PERSIAN EMP
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— Amélie Kuhrt — Figure 39.1 D
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— Amélie Kuhrt — Memphis, in L
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— Amélie Kuhrt — by Jews. Neig
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— Amélie Kuhrt — by the king,
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— Amélie Kuhrt — dress, elabor
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— Amélie Kuhrt — The one autho
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— Amélie Kuhrt — C. Waerzegger
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ancestor cult 270, 281 Andarig 401
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cuneiform: tablets 1, 54; writing 9
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gift exchange 272-3, 491, 511 Gilga
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leaching 57-8 lead 127 leeks 46 len
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omens 253, 299, 303, 361-71, 373, 3
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soil 55; cultivation 57; improvemen
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Zabalam 18, 268 Zagros mountains 12
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