Between Two Worlds Kafadar.pdf

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and ideology by later generations, as the empire entered a phase of decentralization towards the end of that century. It was also in the sixteenth century that people began to realize, or began to deal with an earlier realization, that some of the ways of the earlier Ottomans did not exactly conform to the norms of orthodox Islam as understood by its learned representatives serving the Sunni state. <strong>Two</strong> glaring transgressions among institutionalized practices were the establishment of pious endowments with cash (cash waqf) and the recruitment of the children of non-Muslim subjects for service as kuls of the Sublime Porte (devshirme). The former implied regular returns for money, or in other words interest, while the latter implied forced conversion of populations that should have been free of such interference according to the covenant known as the dhimma that the Ottomans otherwise upheld. The devshirme, as a crucial ingredient of the Ottoman administrative apparatus in the classical age, does not seem to have invited more than minimal debate. Cash waqf, on the other hand, turned out to be the subject of intense controversy and divisiveness among the religious and legal scholars, as the Ottoman state was trying to find the right dose of flexibility without stepping outside orthodoxy. Even those who allowed cash endowment to continue were aware that it was not ― 154 ― practiced elsewhere in the Muslim world but was born under the peculiar circumstances of a frontier environment. Then, too, some voices were raised against certain holy figures of an earlier era whom frontier folk and march principalities had idealized without much concern for their orthodoxy. Sari Saltuk , for instance, was characterized as a Christian ascetic by Ebussuùd Efendi (d. 1574), Suleyman's Grand Mufti, and legends about Ahi Evren were ridiculed by Munir Efendi of Belgrade (fl. early 17th century), who wanted artisans to follow an ideologically correct line. The shrine of Seyyid Gazi, and the order of Haci Bektas , were now seen to have fallen into the hands of heretics· In the end, neither the cash waqf nor the cults of these figures were suppressed, which is due, to some extent, to the relative lack of rigidity in Ottoman orthodoxy and also to the insufficiency of the technologies of control available to a pre-modern state. Still, the waqf and the cults were rendered questionable, circumscribed, and, especially in the case of cults, marginalized vis-à-vis the political classes. Just as fellow warriors and allied social forces of the frontier era had to be subjugated or eliminated in order to establish the supremacy of Ottoman power, so their legacy had to be tamed or suppressed or marginalized in order to consolidate that power. The Ottoman state, like any of its counterparts, was constructed not only in reality but also, thanks in part to historians, in the imagination of people. ― 155 ― Abbreviations 134
ABI. H. Uzuncarsili . Anadolu Beylikleri ve Akkoyunlu, Karakoyunlu Devletleri. Ankara, 1937. ApzÀsikpasazade (fifteenth-century Ottoman historian) BMGSByzantine and Modern Greek Studies BSOASBulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies DOPDumbarton Oaks Papers EIThe Encyclopedia of Islam IA Islam Ansiklopedisi IJMESInternational Journal of Middle East Studies JOSJournal of Ottoman Studies JTSJournal of Turkish Studies MOGMitteilungen zur osmanischen Geschichte OAOxford Anonymous OEE. Zachariadou, ed. The Ottoman Emirate (1300-1389): A Symposium Held in Rethymnon, 11-13 January 1991. Rethymnon, 1993. SIStudia Islamica TSFPhilip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, eds. Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East. Berkeley, 1990. TSKTopkapi Sarayi Kütüphanesi (Topkapi Palace Library) WZKMWiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes YFYahsi Fakih (author of lost chronicle, Apz's main source ) ZDMGZeitschrift der Deutschen morgenlandische Gesellschaft ― 157 ― Notes Preface 1. H. A. Gibbons, The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (Oxford, 1916); M.F. Küprülü, Les origines de l'empire ottoman (Paris, 1935) ; P.Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London, 1938). 2. For a new exercise, see Halil Inalcik * , ''Comments on 'Sultanism': Max Weber's Typification of the Ottoman Polity," Princeton Papers in Near Eastern Studies 1(1992):49-72. 3. It seems rather appropriate that the villain's name brings to mind Jorge Luis Borges (although Eco may have been initially unaware that this character would turn out to be the murderer, as he claimed in his Postscript to the Name of the Rose, trans. W. Weaver [San Diego, I984], 28), the most antihistorical and antinarrative of postmodern authors. 4. See Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge, 1987); and N. Z. Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, 1987). 5. Sir Moses Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York, 1980). 6. Halil Berktay, Cumhuriyet Ideolojisi * ve Fuat Küprülü (Istanbul, 1983); idem, "The 'Other' Feudalism: A Critique of Twentieth Century Turkish Historiography and Its Particularisation of Ottoman Society" (Ph.D. diss., University of Birmingham, 1990); Martin Strohmeier, Seldschukische Geschichte 135
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Between Two Worlds Preferred Citati
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like "origins," "genealogy," and "s
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University's Near Eastern Studies D
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Orhan dies, and Murad I succeeds hi
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tradition has been noted before and
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sought the alliance of the Byzantin
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of Political turbulences. The early
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he went and told the story to the s
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cohesion and drive, the realm they
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different political tendencies trie
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to strike coins, issue endowment de
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1413-21) and Murad II (r. 1421-44,
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― 21 ― Muslims and reverted to
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post-Ottoman nation-states of the B
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institutions or did they create the
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carved by the very same people who
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― 31 ― son thought so highly of
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One of his radically novel assertio
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Underlining the growth of trade and
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gazis, warriors of the faith, who s
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time. Furthermore, we should note t
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however, believes that the Iskender
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Zoroastrian.[37] In addition to thi
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It is time now to go over the gaza
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values" could be anything more than
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least recognized an intermediate ca
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― 55 ― My point here is not to
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the bourgeoisie simply by studying
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existence.[2] The only pieces of wr
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popularity, such as the Àntarname
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century. We must also note, however
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― 68 ― turn. Grabbing her lance
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emperor Kantakouzenos (1341-55) and
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attitudes or gestures. Not that suc
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Ottoman central authorities in the
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Àrif Çelebi, the Mevlevi , releas
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― 80 ― strategy?[57] In a world
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origins might well serve as a metap
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construct of a settled civilization
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― 87 ― chronicles relate that a
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warriors, tribes, and holy men can
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Page 105 and 106: Èek deveyi güt koyunu Bir gün ol
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Page 133: enterprises and of the Ottoman poli
Page 137 and 138: Faruk Sümer, ¡ abanlu Pazari: Sel
Page 139 and 140: eve of the Mantzikert victory, bene
Page 141 and 142: ed. Gary Leiser (Albany, 1992). 19.
Page 143 and 144: 40. Akdag * , Týrkiye'nin Iktisadi
Page 145 and 146: 66. On human sacrifice, see Vryonis
Page 147 and 148: 64-65. Note that the horse is of ev
Page 149 and 150: Hellenism, 372; on Elvan * Çelebi
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Page 153 and 154: 85. Ibn Àrabshah * , Tamerlane, 17
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Page 157 and 158: Greek Population of Istanbul and th
Page 159 and 160: Imparatorlugunda * Bir Iskan * ve K
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Page 165 and 166: though Giese's theory is farfetched
Page 167 and 168: 49. See the excellent study of E. Z
Page 169 and 170: Devri'ndeki Sehzadeler Mücadelesin
Page 171 and 172: Manâkib-i Hünkâr Bektas-iVeli (I
Page 173 and 174: ———. Baciyan-i Rum (Anadolu S
Page 175 and 176: Erzi, Adnan. "Osmanli Devletinin Ku
Page 177 and 178: ———. The Ottoman Empire, 1300
Page 179 and 180: Andronicus II, 1282-1328. Cambridge
Page 181 and 182: Ann Arbor, 1977. Runciman, Steven.
Page 183 and 184: 26(1951):483-88. Woods, John. The A
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Angiolello, Giovanni Maria, 191 n66
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Bazin, Louis, 186 n13 Bedreddin 143
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conversions to Islam, 10 -11, 19 -4
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Safavids and, 141 ; and schoolmen,
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culture, 61 , 62 , 64 , 84 , 89 , 1
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and chronicles, 13 , 33 , 44 , 98 ;
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identities, 190 -91; explanatory va
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Laiou, Angeliki E., 188 n38 Lamprec
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Mugiseddin 77 Muhammad 63 , 94 , 11
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― 218 ― Orhan (continued) (1324
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Paphlagonia, 35 , 130 , 134 Pazarlu
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and dream legend, 133 ; and gaza54
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Toktagu Khan 45 trade, 126 ; routes
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gaza85 -88, 111 -12; Ottoman ventur
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