convergence

How Illicit Networks Impact Sovereignty
Complex criminal networks where multiple criminal factions interact by “cooperating and
competing for the control of illicit markets are impacting democratic environments and transforming
themselves into a real force that could end up determining the destiny of institutions
and communities.” 11 A consequence of TCO action is diminished state capacity. TCOs are
thus challenging the sovereignty and solvency of states
Dark Side Actors
Transnational crime, gangs, terrorism, and insurgency are threats influencing the current and
future conflict environment. 12 These separate—and increasingly linked or networked—threats
result in a diffuse security environment that blurs distinctions between crime and war. A consequence
of this convergence is the rise of new political and economic actors including gangs
and TCOs that alter the internal and external security dynamics of states and the relationship
between states and their citizens.
Global cities are home to transnational criminals and global gangs. 13 Specifically, “Third
Generation gangs” (3 GEN) are developing increased complexity and impact. 3 GEN gangs
differ from First Generation gangs, which are essentially turf organizations that engage in
opportunistic crimes, and the more market-focused Second Generation gangs that sometimes
operate on a national level. 3 GEN gangs are internationalized, networked, and complicated
structures that evolve mercenary or political aims. 14 In the Americas, maras frequently fit the
third generation definition operating at the high ends of three continua: internationalization,
sophistication, and politicization (see figure 15 ). Maras are essentially gangs; they are separate
from cartels (which are more evolved enterprises that generally seek to dominate the illicit
economy), although both interact. Maras frequently interact with, and are allied with, cartels
to serve as transnational subcontractors or mercenaries for cartel organizations.
Generations of Gangs
limited Politicization evolved
local Internationalization global
1 st Generation 2 nd Generation 3 rd Generation
turf gang drug gang mercenary gang
turf protection market protection power/nancial acquisition
proto-netwarrior emerging netwarrior netwarrior
less sophisticated Sophistication more sophisticated
Source: John P. Sullivan, “Third Generation Street Gangs: Turf, Cartels, and Net Warriors,”Transnational
Organized Crime 3, no. 3, Autumn 1997.
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