Natural Science in Archaeology

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5.1 Introduction 93 Faceting gems required an intimate knowledge of hardness and cleavage, as well as great skill. One slip could destroy a valuable stone (Dickinson 1965). In the Near East, faceting was used only to reveal the beauty of the stone’s color. Any unnecessary cuts were viewed unfavorably since it was believed this would detract from the mystical powers of the stone (Woodward and Harding 1997). Conversely, European craftsmen began to develop intricate faceting that utilized the optimal proportions for optical brilliance of faceted gems. Great advances in diamond cutting took place during the fifteenth century (Bauer 1968, p. 239). It was not until after this evolution that the diamond began to gain the status and value as an object for personal adornment that it has in modern times. As gemstones gained value and demand increased, new methods were developed to increase the value of more common stones and to artificially manufacture gems. Altered stones are found in the archaeological record from an early period (Nassau 1984). The ancient Romans valued darker chalcedony over the lighter variety, and they learned that burning light-colored chalcedony would cause it to darken as the heat chemically altered the iron oxide pigment. This had to be done carefully, without heating or cooling the stone too quickly to prevent fracturing (Nassau 1994). Methods for heat-treating gemstones became closely guarded trade secrets. One of the problems in dealing with the color of minerals in antiquity is that we do not know when early artisans discovered that the color of many minerals could be changed by heating (see Lehmann 1977). It is not possible to distinguish a naturally colored stone from a heat-treated stone with the naked eye, but laboratory analysis can reveal microscopic fractures that result from exposure to high temperatures in a kiln or hearth (Nassau 1994). Imitation gems have been used since ancient times. The Romans made imitations from glass or paste, and, according to Pliny, they also knew how to impart artificial color to naturally occurring minerals. Few examples of these have survived in the archaeological record, but their use was likely widespread. During the Medieval Period, another imitation gem, known as a “doublet”, became popular. If a craftsman had only a thin mineral fragment, he would glue this onto a less expensive material. The “gem” was shaped and mounted into a setting so that only the more valuable mineral was visible (Bauer 1968). The following pages present the systematics of the minerals used in antiquity for gemstones, seal stones, and ceremonial stones. There is very little information on some of the gemstones listed because they may have been confused with other gemstones in antiquity. For example, classical Arab scholars identified chalcedony ( ), onyx ( ), garnet, carnelian ( ), and agate all as forms of acqeeq. Archaeologists have perpetuated this problem by identifying all red stones as “ruby”, blue stones as “sapphire”, without mineralogical studies for confirmation. Therefore, some stones that may be present, but which have yet remained unidentified in the archaeological record, are listed in anticipation of future archaeomineralogic studies. A map of the gem deposits of the ancient Near East can be found in Forbes (1963, p. 236). In a recent article, Spiridonov (1998) has reviewed the gem deposits of the former Soviet Union.
94 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ceremonial Stones 5.2 Quartz Minerals (SiO 2 ) 5.2.1 Crystalline Varieties Rock Crystal/Quartz. This quartz is colorless or transparent (Fig. 5.2). The name “quartz” may have originated from the Saxon word querklufertz meaning “crossveined ore” (Blackburn and Dennen 1997). In the Middle Ages rock crystal was extracted in large quantities near St. Gotthard Pass in Italy. Objects made from rock crystal often were commissioned by the Church and the Italian courts. These took the form of crosses, caskets, vases, and pyxes. Quartz is one of the most common and widely distributed of all minerals. It was mined in Predynastic Egypt and eighth century Japan. Vessels and spheres have been carved from large crystals since ancient times. The use of the word crystal for fine glassware derives from this practice. Rock crystal artifacts are associated with ancient Greece, Rome, China, and Japan. The earliest lapidary centers, about 1500 CE, in India dealt mainly with quartz gems. According to Pliny, crystallus came from India, Asia Minor, Alabanda, Orthosia, Cyprus, the Alps, and an island in the Red Sea (N.H. 36.1–2, 198; 37.23–29, 56, 77, 116, 123, 127, 129, 132, 136, 197, 204). He may have been confusing rock crystal and diamond in some instances. Quartz was used in gems, beads, seal stones, inlaid “eyes,” and decorative and ceremonial objects. In Egypt Fig. 5.2 Ritual sprinkle in rock crystal from Kato Zakro, Greece
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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