Natural Science in Archaeology

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278 11 Building, Monumental, and Statuary Materials Fig. 11.10 Weathering of sandstone blocks Roman builders developed a good knowledge of the diverse properties of these deposits concerning their durability. Early construction utilized weakly durable, soft or vitric, tuffs. As time progressed, Roman builders quarried specific tuffs for specific structural elements. Lighter weight material was selected for upper stories supported by robust material in pillars reinforced with travertine. Since tuffs, in general, are not durable building stones, the Romans preserved them with protective stucco, travertine, and marble coatings (Jackson et al. 2005).
11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 279 The historical buildings in Upper Egypt were built largely of local sandstone. The Horus temple at Edfu was completely constructed of local sandstone. The Abu Simbel temples were cut in the Nubian sandstone quarry in South Aswan. These sandstones are composed mainly of quartz grains cemented by ferruginous, siliceous, carbonaceous, and clay cements. Diurnal and seasonal changes in temperature and relative humidity are the principal threats to monuments constructed of these rocks. The temperature and humidity variations cause the growth of halite and gypsum crystals that result in cracking and structural failure. A dramatic case of change in environment is seen in the removal of the large obelisks from Egypt. Sculpted in the middle of the second millennium BCE, these monuments stood in Egypt for 3000 years with little surficial damage. Over a century ago, three were exported, one to Paris about 1840, one to London about 1870, and one to New York about 1890. In the more humid and polluted atmospheres of these cities, the three obelisks have suffered major deterioration. Sulfur and nitrogen acids in the atmosphere have done most of the damage. The recent increase of vehicle emissions in Cairo does not augur well for the preservation of those surviving in Egypt. An important part of our culture is chiseled in stone, and these stones are slowly weathering away. Even ancient Greek and Roman writers were aware of this phenomenon. Based on the rate the limestone has weathered in the great pyramids of Egypt, now nearly 5000 years old, they could last another 100,000 years. This is due largely to the low rainfall. However, the recent dramatic increase in the acidity of the rain could reduce this time to substantially less than 10,000 years. Their companion structure, the Sphinx, is not so “lucky”. In recent years the Sphinx has deteriorated rapidly. The Sphinx is carved from the natural limestone of the Giza Plateau. The lowest stratum of the Sphinx is composed of member I, which is hard rock of a reef limestone (Figs. 11.11 and 11.12). This rock has not weathered appreciably. Fig. 11.11 The Sphinx was carved in situ from bedrock
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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Page 261 and 262: 11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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Page 293 and 294: References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
Page 296 and 297: 284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
Page 299 and 300: References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
Page 302 and 303: 290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
Page 306 and 307: 294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
Page 309 and 310: References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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Page 313 and 314: References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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Page 318 and 319: 306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
Page 321 and 322: References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
Page 323 and 324: References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
Page 325: References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
Page 328 and 329: 316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
Page 330 and 331: 318 References Singer C (1948) The
Page 332 and 333: 320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
Page 334 and 335: 322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
Page 336 and 337: 324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
Page 338 and 339: 327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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