Natural Science in Archaeology

114 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ceremonial Stones
bright red. It takes its name from Greek haimatitis (blood red). Hematite has been
collected by humans since prehistoric times. Cylinder seals of hematite have been
associated with Babylonian contexts. Hematite was also found in Egyptian tombs.
In classical times, it was popular for carved intaglios (Bauer 1968). Hematite was
mined in the Eastern Desert of Egypt during the Roman Period (Lucas 1989). Pliny
states that haematitus came from Arabia and Africa (N.H. 37.169). It was used as
beads, charms, paint pigment, and mortuary offerings. See Chap. 9 for the use of
hematite as a pigment.
Limonite is a common rock name for material that is mostly the mineral goethite
[FeO(OH)]. Brownish-yellow in color, limonite takes its name from the Greek
word for “meadow.” Its hardness varies. Pliny’s xuthos from India may have been
limonite (N.H. 37.128, 169). Goethite crystal beads are known from southwestern
United States. One was a crystal pseudomorphous after pyrite and retained the
pyrite crystal morphology (Breternitz 1964).
Ilmenite, FeTiO 3 , has a hardness that ranges from 5 to 6 and a density of 4.72.
It is iron-black in color. Its name is derived from a source in the Ilmen Mountains,
Russia. Other sources are found in Mesoamerica, where the indigenous people
used it to make small mirrors ca. 1500 BCE on the Gulf Coast and in the southern
Highlands.
Turquoise, CuAl 6 (PO 4 ) 4 (OH) 8 ·4H 2 O, has a hardness between 5 and 6 and a density
range of 2.6–2.8. It is usually turquoise, but the color can vary from bright
blue, massive pale blue to sky blue, bluish-green to apple green to greenish-gray
Turquoise is one of the oldest known talismanic and curative gems, prized by many
cultures worldwide. Its name originates from the French word for “Turkish.” The
famous Persian mines were located near Nishapu in the province of Khorasan.
Turquoise was used in ancient Egypt prior to the First Dynasty. Turquoise mines
operated in the Sinai Peninsula by the fourth millennium BCE. Pliny mentions different
green stones that may have been turquoise (N.H. 37.74, 110–112) but there
seems to have been some confusion between lapis lazuli and turquoise. Turquoise
( al-fayruz) is mentioned by the Arab mineralogist ibn-Mansur in 1300 CE
(Bauer 1968). Kostov et al. (2007) have identified turquoise beads from the multiperiod
prehistoric Orlovo site in Southern Bulgaria. A Bulgarian turquoise source is
located at the Spahievo lead-zinc deposit.
Turquoise has been used in China for more than 3000 years, at least back to the
late Shang at Anyang (Wang 1986). Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) turquoise objects
are known from ancient China (Laufer 1913). Carvings are known from the Yin
Dynasty (1300 BCE) (Fuquan 1986). In Siberia it has been used since the Bronze
Age (Laufer 1913). Turquoise is also mentioned in ancient Tibetan texts (Laufer
1913). The use of turquoise in ancient India in the sixth, fourth, and third millennia
BCE is reported by Biswas (1996). Turquoise was carved and made into decorative
objects, beads, gems, and seals.
Turquoise mines in the southwestern United States have been worked since
prehistoric times. Here, there are a number of turquoise deposits. Perhaps the
most exploited is near Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, USA. Over 56,000 pieces of
turquoise were recovered from two burials at Pueblo Bonito. Much additional tur-