Natural Science in Archaeology

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42 2 Properties of Minerals Fig. 2.11 A Fluorescence. B Thermoluminescence absorption of radiation moving the electron energy level, F, followed by a drop of the electron to a lower energy state, A, by radiating with a wavelength longer than the stimulating radiation. In practice, fluorescence usually involves the absorption of radiation in the invisible ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, with the simultaneous emission of radiation of a longer wavelength in the region of visible light. The word “fluorescence” was first suggested to describe this mechanism in the brilliant blue luminescence of many specimens of fluorite found in England. The blue fluorescence in fluorites is caused by the lanthanide elements. They fluoresce by electron transitions involving unfilled f orbitals. Probably, no other mineral shows so many different fluorescent hues as fluorite. As with some other light absorption phenomena, fluorescence is due to the presence of foreign ions acting as absorbers. In some minerals the activator or foreign ion is known. Manganese (+2) is the cause of fluorescence in calcite, CaCO , 3 and willemite, Zn SiO ; lead and molybdenum generate fluorescence in scheelite, 2 4 CaWO . In some instances, a special combination of foreign ions is needed. The 4 bright red fluorescence of halite from California dry lake deposits and from a salt spring in Idaho is due to cooperative activation by minute amounts of manganese and lead. Alone, neither element will generate fluorescence in halite. Apparently, Pb2+ acts as an absorber, Mn2+ as an emitter. There are few minerals of which every specimen is fluorescent. Most minerals, however, have at least one occurrence of fluorescence when activator ions are incorporated into the crystal during its formation, producing fluorescence when it is exposed to radiation at one or more wavelengths. Fluorescent specimens of halite; gypsum, CaSO ·2H O; barite, BaSO ; apatite, Ca (PO ) (F,Cl); and leucite, 4 2 4 5 4 3 KAlSi O , have been found. The most interesting fluorescent mineral is hack- 2 6 manite, Na (S,Cl)Si Al O , which changes color under the influence of different 4 3 3 12 wavelengths of light. A purplish-pink when freshly exposed, hackmanite bleaches rapidly in sunlight, but the color returns when the strong light is removed. With ultraviolet stimulation, the mineral becomes an intense pink or purple. The source of these color changes in hackmanite is thought to be the chemical substitution of S2− for Cl− , resulting in the development of color centers. In a few minerals the color is not a result of electronic properties of transition metals. For example, in lazurite (the main component of lapis lazuli), the sulfur − atoms are in S groups. Transitions among the atoms in this grouping produce the 3 deep-blue color.
2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluorescence characteristics of a mineral obtained in one locality will generally not be identical with those of the same mineral from other localities. Minor changes in the quantity or type of activator ion incorporated in the mineral structure will produce different fluorescent properties from locality to locality. Chermette (1985), Fritsch (1985), and Fritsch and Rossman (1987, 1988 a, b) have presented extensive reviews of the physical and chemical basis for mineral color. Lehmann and Bambauer (1973) and Rossman (1994) explain the basis of the color in silvery minerals, particularly tin.
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
Page 5 and 6: vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
Page 7 and 8: viii Preface to the Second Edition
Page 9 and 10: x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
Page 11 and 12: xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
Page 13 and 14: xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
Page 15 and 16: Chapter 1 Introduction and History
Page 17 and 18: 1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
Page 21 and 22: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
Page 23 and 24: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
Page 25 and 26: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
Page 27 and 28: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
Page 29 and 30: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
Page 31 and 32: Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
Page 33 and 34: 2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
Page 35 and 36: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 41 and 42: 2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
Page 43 and 44: 2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
Page 45 and 46: 2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
Page 47 and 48: 2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
Page 49 and 50: 2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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Page 59 and 60: 46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
Page 83 and 84: 70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
Page 85 and 86: 72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
Page 87 and 88: 74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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Page 91 and 92: 78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
Page 93 and 94: 80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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Page 97 and 98: 84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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Page 105 and 106: 92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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94 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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