Natural Science in Archaeology

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7.8 Tin (Sn) Minerals 175 Fig. 7.11 Tin deposits in China and nearby areas to cast large and intricate vessels. A single bronze vessel from Anyang dating to 1200 BCE weighed 875 kg. This metallurgy was based on a three-component bronze: copper, tin, and lead. Nothing remotely comparable to the Shang bronzes in total quantity is known elsewhere in the ancient world. The Chinese had mastered the separate skills of prospecting, mining, extraction, metallurgy, alloying, and casting. In the territory of the former Soviet Union, Russian archaeologists believe that tin was first mined on the slopes of the Caucasus Mountains in the second to first centuries BCE. Later, in the fourth to ninth centuries CE, tin was recovered along the western slopes of the Urals (Levine and Bond 1994). In Japan, with a relatively metal-poor geology, there are minor lode deposits on Honshu (Taylor 1979) and Kyushu (Fig. 7.12). Many of the lodes contain copper. Bronze was introduced into Japan from the Han Dynasty in China (Penhallurick 1986), and much of the early copper and tin undoubtedly came from China.
176 7 Metals and Related Minerals and Ores Fig. 7.12 Japanese tin deposits 7.9 Lead (Pb) Minerals The name lead comes from an Old English word. Native lead metal occurs naturally as rounded masses and plates up to 60 kg but is very rare, and it is highly unlikely that native lead was utilized in ancient times. Unlike gold, silver and copper, native lead was not available; therefore, it had to be smelted from its ores, primarily lead sulfide (galena), lead carbonate (cerussite), and lead sulfate (anglesite). Lead becomes molten at 327°C, so it is easily cast. It may have been smelted as early as copper. It is known from the Old World as long ago as the sixth millennium BCE. Early use of metallic lead includes a necklace from the Early Bronze Age of Scotland (Hunter and Davis 1994), which has since weathered to pyromorphite [Pb 5 (PO 4 ) 3 Cl] and cerussite (PbCO 3 ). Cerussite has been frequently referred to as white lead spar. Note the confusion with white lead in Chap. 9. At Çatal Höyük, galena beads date back to 6500 BCE (Sperl 1990). Lead has been recovered from a sixth millennium BCE level at Yarim Tepe in Iraq, two fourth millennium sites in Iran, and one in Egypt (Gale and Stos-Gale 1981). Because of its density, lead has been used for anchors at least since the early first millennium BCE. Lead mining at Rio Tinto, Spain, goes back to about 900 BCE, and at Lavrion, Greece, lead mining extends back at least to late prehistoric times. A lead seal was discovered from the Early Bronze Age at the site of Tsoungiza, Greece (Pullen 1994). Lead seals are rare (or rarely preserved), and this is the first one recovered from mainland Greece from this time period. The exploitation of the lead-zinc deposits of Belgium dates back to prehistoric times (Dejonghe 1998). The mineralogy of the deposits is generally galena, sphalerite, and pyrite. Bronze Age tombs near these deposits contained lead tools with high zinc contents. The Romans used lead for a vast array of items including coffins and urns (Toller 1977), inscribed tablets (Tomlin 1988), pipes, coins, pewter, glass, glaze, and as standard weights. It was used as a preservative and as a sweetener in their wines. This toxic element then accumulated in their bodies and caused severe medical disorders.
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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Page 197 and 198: 184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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Page 215 and 216: 202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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Page 221 and 222: Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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