Natural Science in Archaeology

7.1 Introduction 145
(Thomas 2005) suggest that the black material in Mycenean bronze daggers may
be black patinated bronze, not a black inlaid sulfide paste. The author argues that
the black material is essentially identical with Japanese “shakudo”, which is a mixture
of gold and copper (usually 4% gold and 96% copper) that develops a dark
purplish-black surface when treated with a suitable solution (normally containing
copper sulfate). It is similar to decorative alloys used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and
Rome.
The high luster of solidified lead sulfide smelt attracted ancient artisans from
Egypt, Greece, Rome, and South America. Ancient Egyptians and the Myceneans
of Greece developed a similar product in the second millennium BCE. The Romans
called this material aes Corinthium “Corinthian bronze” (Giumlia-Mair 1996). Pliny
mentions this material and the process for producing it. The Japanese developed and
have used this material since the eighth century CE. Niello is based on contrasting
a gold color with a black to black-violet inlay. After much discussion of conflicting
views, Jacobson and Weitzman (1992) agree that Corinthian bronze is essentially
identical to the tumbaga of Precolumbian South America and that it can be characterized
by a mixture of precious metals (especially gold and silver with copper).
Although archaeometallurgy has only a small number of practitioners, most of
our knowledge of the early use of metallic minerals comes from their studies. There
is a substantial amount of information on metal raw materials in Tylecote (1962,
1986). Archaeometallurgists obtain most of their data from analyzing metal artifacts.
This often does not indicate which specific ore minerals were the raw materials.
However, concerning copper alloy raw materials see Rapp (1989).
Before discussing individual metals and ore minerals, it is worth noting some
of the major general references. Many of these have a much broader coverage than
mineral and rock raw materials but contain either a good overview or a good review
of the sources of specific minerals or rocks or their utilization. Three volumes of
Der Anschnitt are particularly valuable regarding archaeometallurgy and archaeomineralogy.
These are Wagner and Weisgerber (1988), Hauptmann et al. (1989), and
Rehren et al. (1998). Other volumes in archaeometallurgy that contain extensive
material on archaeomineralogy are Craddock (1980), Wertime and Muhly (1980),
and Maddin (1988). An annotated bibliography of the history of metal mining and
metallurgy is available in Molloy (1986). Craddock (1995) presents a good overview
of archaeometallurgy and related archaeomineralogy of early metal production.
Although now somewhat dated, information on copper, lead, and zinc deposits
of the former USSR are presented in Smirnov (1977). An important compendium of
metal deposit information is the Pergamon Press series of annotated Bibliographies
of Mineral Deposits by J.D. Ridge (e.g., Africa, Asia, and Australia 1976; northern
Europe 1984).
For early metallurgy and related raw material use in various parts of the world, see:
Southeast Europe: Jovanovic (1971, 1982); Wertime and Muhly (1980); Gale and
Stos-Gale (1981); Muhly et al. (1982); Glumac and Todd (1987, 1991); Pernicka
(1987); Rothenberg (1990); Zwicker (1990); Geselowitz (1991); Glumac (1991);
Stos-Gale (1993); McGeehan-Liritzis (1996); and Pernicka et al. (1997).