Natural Science in Archaeology

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7.5 Other Copper Minerals 159 copper carbonates malachite and azurite began in the Chalcolithic and continued through the Bronze Age. Numerous mining tools have been recovered. Maggi and Pearce (2005) have presented new radiocarbon dates to show that copper mining at Monte Loreta in Liguria, northwest Italy, began about 3500 BCE, making this the earliest copper mining in western Europe. The prehistoric miners exploited natural fissures of copper ore. The authors did not identify the copper ore mineral(s). Jackson (1980) notes that there are 74 copper mines of proven or probable Early Bronze Age in southwest Ireland. Nearly all are mines of modest dimensions in the famous Old Red Sandstone. Figure 7.7 shows copper mining areas in the British Isles. It must be stressed that modern exploitation does not imply anything about the potential for ancient mining. Each site must be investigated to establish both the geologic and the archaeological contexts. A study conducted over a 30-year period on North American native copper sources (Rapp et al. 2000) and an investigation of early Anatolian copper mining (Wagner et al. 1983/1984) clearly show the need for this. Fig. 7.7 Copper deposits in the British Isles
160 7 Metals and Related Minerals and Ores Copper ores developed at the base of gossans were called by the German name fahlerze (pale ore), and now are commonly called fahl ores. In some environments, lead/silver ores are also found at the base of gossans, often accompanied by the mineral jarosite [KFe 3 (SO 4 ) 2 (OH) 6 ]. An example of this is at Lavrion in Greece, but there are other occurrences in France, Germany, Spain (see Williams 1950), and the Czech Republic. Pre-Roman mining at Rio Tinto, Spain, extracted silver and copper. The silver ores were jarositic in composition because they came from gossans. It is likely that the earliest copper smelting was conducted well below the melting temperature of copper (1083°C). A variety of scenarios may be proposed to account for the initial discovery that copper metal can be separated from nonmetallic-looking minerals such as malachite and azurite. For example, bright green malachite or bright blue azurite might have been applied as decoration on the surface of pottery by Chalcolithic artisans. If the pottery was then fired in a reducing atmosphere, copper beads would have formed. Malachite and azurite, which are carbonate minerals, begin to decompose below 400°C, and early pottery was fired at temperatures above 600°C. Once ancient metallurgists learned how to smelt the more difficult copper sulfide ores, perhaps soon after 2000 BCE in the eastern Mediterranean, they turned to the much more abundant copper iron sulfide, chalcopyrite. The technology for smelting copper sulfide minerals probably had a profound effect on economics and trade relationships in the early phases of the Bronze Age. Oxide zone copper deposits, which undoubtedly provided the first raw material for copper smelting, are not normally as rich or as extensive as sulfide zone copper deposits. As the Bronze Age developed, oxide zone deposits were depleted, and sulfide copper, available beneath the oxide zone and in regions where erosion exposed primary copper ores, would have been the only secure source for copper. The earliest copper “alloys” contain appreciable quantities of arsenic and lead, sometimes nickel or antimony, and occasionally silver, bismuth, or tin. A primary question is whether the arsenic, lead, and tin were added deliberately or were the result of impure raw materials. If the early arsenical coppers were deliberate, then what prompted the initial effort(s) to smelt “mixed” ores? Was it random experimentation with metallic-looking stones, or was it the result of perceptive understanding of the smelting products of naturally complex ores? Zwicker et al. (1980) point out that arsenic in a copper ore can be dissolved in the copper during smelting. The Sican culture, 700–1400 CE, introduced bronze metallurgy in northern Peru with their extensive production of arsenical copper (Shimada and Griffin 1994). For most of the region from Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the Near East to the Indian subcontinent, the first copper alloys were predominantly arsenic bronzes containing more than 1% arsenic. The name arsenic comes from the Greek word for strong because of its potent chemical properties. In the British Bronze Age the earliest bronzes were made with arsenic (McKerrell and Tylecote 1972). Renfrew (1967) states that tin bronze is rare in the Greek Aegean Early Bronze Age. In Crete in EB I–II, arsenic was more common than tin as an alloying element (Branigan 1974). In central Italy, excavations near a number of copper deposits about 20 km south of Sienna have revealed an Etruscan bronze metallurgy of the seventh and sixth centuries BCE (Warden et al. 1982).
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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Page 215 and 216: 202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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