Natural Science in Archaeology

List of Figures xv
7.9 Cassiterite in riffl es, Mine Mueilha, Egyptian Eastern Desert ..........173
7.10 Southeast Asian tin deposits .........................................174
7.11 Tin deposits in China and nearby areas ...............................175
7.12 Japanese tin deposits ................................................176
7.13 A generalized cross-section illustrating the alteration of
primary copper sulfi des near the earth’s surface .......................182
8.1 Clay head of a fi gurine, Iron Age, Tel Michal, Israel ..................184
8.2 Thin section of pottery from Big Rice Lake site, Minnesota, USA .....190
9.1 Fragments of painted wall plaster from Umm el-Jimal, Jordan,
Byzantine period ....................................................211
10.1 Halite cleavage fragments ...........................................224
10.2 Distribution of Mayan salt sources ...................................227
10.3 Sources of salt in Ming Dynasty, China ..............................228
10.4 Natron deposits in Egypt ............................................229
10.5 The murex, Bolinus brandaris, formerly placed with
the genus Thais .....................................................233
10.6 A selection of cowries ...............................................235
10.7 Large limestone stone money disk. ...................................245
11.1 Limestone pyramids, Giza, Egypt ....................................248
11.2 The great rock-cut temple of Abu Simbel of Rameses II, south of
Aswan on the west bank of the Nile, carved out of sandstone rock
cliffs about 1280 BCE ...............................................251
11.3 Unfi nished pink granite obelisk, Aswan, Egypt .......................252
11.4 Umm el-Jimal, Jordan, is constructed almost entirely
of local basalt .......................................................254
11.5 The author inspecting the walls of ancient Troy built out of the local
bedrock limestone (Rapp 1982) ......................................255
11.6 El Khazneh, Petra, Jordan fi rst century CE ...........................257
11.7 Acropolis, Athens, Greece: structures built from local marble and
limestone ...........................................................259
11.8 6th Dynasty Pharaonic inscriptions on quartzite, Bir Meilha,
Egyptian Eastern Desert .............................................260
11.9 Top of buried wall of rammed earth (hang-tu in Chinese),
Shang Dynasty, China ...............................................270
11.10 Weathering of sandstone blocks ......................................278
11.11 The Sphinx was carved in site from bedrock ..........................279
11.12 The Mokattam Formation, members I and II, the lowest layers
from which the Sphinx was carved, require regular conservation
because they are soft and constantly crumble .........................280