Natural Science in Archaeology

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26 2 Properties of Minerals when the mineral is immersed in it. In its simplest form, the volume is determined by immersing the mineral in a graduated cylinder, and the volume increase read off. All laboratories will have both weighing scales and graduated cylinders. The second method is called pycnometry. The principle underlying this method requires that the weight of the mineral is measured directly, and the volume obtained by weighing the volume of the liquid displaced from the pycnometer by the minerals. This method entails the successive weighing of the empty pycnometer, the pycnometer with the sample alone, the pycnometer with the sample and liquid and the pycnometer with liquid only. Water can be used if it is not absorbed by, nor reacts with, the mineral. N.H. Winchell (1938) modified the basic technique to achieve accuracies of ±1.0%. The primary disadvantage of this method is that most universities and major museums might not have a pycnometer. The major advantage is that one can use many small fragments when a larger sample is not available. The third method is based on hydrostatic weighing. For most small artifacts, less than 50 g or so, the well-known Jolly balance (Fig. 2.2) is quite suitable. This is the technique preferred by the author. The mineral is first weighed in air and then reweighed in a liquid of known density. From the apparent loss in weight, the volume of the mineral may be computed and hence its density. Most geoscience departments should have a Jolly balance. The fourth, most accurate, method is based on comparison of the mineral or metal artifact with heavy liquids. However, few institutions have the requisite set of heavy liquids (many of which are toxic). All of these density methods are valuable in small artifact identification because they are nondestructive. Geologists use a 10- or 20-power hand lens as an aid in identifying rocks and minerals in hand specimens. Use of a hand lens is valuable in seeing the relict sand Fig. 2.2 The author using a Jolly balance
2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains that identify quartzite; the cleavage or fracture diagnostic of many minerals; and fine-grained textural features common in some rocks. Specimens that are polished by geologic or human action are much harder to identify than those showing natural features of cleavage, fracture, crystallinity, and color. 2.4 Color of Minerals Color has always been important to the human psyche, from protecting against evil spirits to attracting the opposite sex. In the modern Western world black is the symbol of mourning, white of purity, and red of passion or danger. To some groups in East Africa black is the color of joy. In ancient times purple pigment was rare and expensive, so it was a royal color. For thousands of years humans have marveled at the variety of colors found in “stones” and have attributed magical, curative, and protective powers to certain minerals, especially the varicolored gems. The beauty of amethyst was secondary to its value as a safeguard against intoxication; hematite, from the Greek word for blood, was believed to cure all manner of blood diseases, and beryl to promote conjugal love. Even today certain colors are considered appropriate on some occasions and inappropriate on others. Colors as symbols, magic or otherwise, have retained their authority: brides wear white, priests black; red signals stop, and so on. Alchemists, in many ways forerunners of modern experimental scientists, equated color with the essence or true nature of a substance. They tried to find a way to dye, tinge, alloy, or otherwise color metal, believing that such an alteration would indeed transform one substance into another. If their “synthetic gold” tarnished, they knew they had failed. The alchemists’ lack of understanding of the structure of matter was matched, and in some measure governed, by their ignorance of the nature of the color of light. If there is no light, there is no color. Although it is the color of individual minerals that has attracted nearly all of the scientific study, some rocks have been investigated. An example of a study where a rock has been studied carefully to account for its color is that of the color changes in purple-green slate from North Wales (Borradaile et al. 1991). The normally purple slate changes to green in patches parallel to the bedding. The green color is seen where there is a diffusion of Fe 3+ away from the green material leading to a replacement of hematite (red) with magnetite (black). The green material also has twice as much chlorite (green). Mineral and compound descriptions in Chaps. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 often describe color and its role in defining the value of the material. The Nature of Light and Color. Information gathered by the human eye as it perceives light governs the way we think about the material world. As knowledge of the nature of light increased, so, correspondingly, has knowledge of the materials and forces that make up the universe. Beginning in the seventeenth century, when scientists first devised experiments to check their ideas on the nature of the physical world, a running controversy developed on the nature of light. Experiments like those showing that light could be made to
Page 1 and 2: Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
Page 3 and 4: Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
Page 5 and 6: vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
Page 7 and 8: viii Preface to the Second Edition
Page 9 and 10: x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
Page 11 and 12: xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
Page 13 and 14: xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
Page 15 and 16: Chapter 1 Introduction and History
Page 17 and 18: 1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
Page 21 and 22: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
Page 23 and 24: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
Page 25 and 26: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
Page 27 and 28: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
Page 29 and 30: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
Page 31 and 32: Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
Page 33 and 34: 2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
Page 35 and 36: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 37 and 38: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 39: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 43 and 44: 2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
Page 45 and 46: 2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
Page 47 and 48: 2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
Page 49 and 50: 2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
Page 51 and 52: 2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
Page 53 and 54: 2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
Page 55 and 56: 2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
Page 57 and 58: 2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
Page 59 and 60: 46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
Page 83 and 84: 70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
Page 85 and 86: 72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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