Natural Science in Archaeology

8 1 Introduction and History
supported the idea that investigation and experimentation were crucial to pharmacology.
His interest in pharmacopoeia resulted in De Materia Medica, a five-volume work
describing more than 1000 medications and treatments Dioscorides (1933). Although
primarily concerned with plants and their uses, the final volume of his study describes
mineral substances used in medicine. The Arabs used his treatise, and it was translated
back into Latin in the tenth century and used throughout the Middle Ages. It was the
central treatise on pharmacology in Europe and the Near East for fifteen centuries.
Book 5 is titled “Vines, Wines, and Metallic Stones” wherein he describes the
mining, purification, and “effects” of a variety of metals and their compounds,
including mercury, arsenic, copper oxide, and lead acetate. Some of the substances
he mentions cannot be identified, for example “thrakias lithos”. Powdered malachite
was recommended as a mild abrasive for wearing off scars; arsenikon [orpiment]
also was recommended as a body abrasive [but the arsenic made the hair fall out];
pumice was used as a dentifrice; gypsum aided blood clotting when applied to a
wound; and magnetite drew out “gros humors” (Duffin 2005). The book ends with
the health effects of sponges, coral, asbestos, emery, bitumen, and precious stones.
1.3.1.3 Pliny the Elder (ca. 23–79 CE) *
Gaius Plinius Secundus was born at Novum Comum (Como, Italy). He was primarily
a public servant, serving under the emperors Nero and Vespasian. He was
Procurator of Spain under Nero. He had a keen interest in natural phenomena and
completed his encyclopedic work, the Natural History (Naturalis Historia), in 77
CE and dedicated it to Titus, the son of Vespasian. Natural History is divided into
37 books. From a mineralogical standpoint the most important section of this work
is Books 33 through 37, which contain Pliny’s information on metals and minerals.
In many cases he used secondary information from other authors, principally De
Lapidibus of Theophrastus. However, he mentions minerals unknown to Theophrastus
such as fluorspar [fluorite], tourmaline, and rhombic sulfur. He was the first to
describe sulfur in detail. He frequently cites Theophrastus with some skepticism.
Unlike his contemporaries, Pliny took care to name his sources, including now lost
Greek texts. Pliny mentions a stone he calls “Thracian stone”. It appears to be the
same material that Theophrastus called “spinos” (Kostov 2007).
The “mineral” portion of Natural History begins with the precious metals, their
alloys and compounds. This is followed by a discussion of clays and earths. The
foregoing section is subdivided into paragraphs on the ceramic uses of earth, sulfur,
bitumen, alum, kaolin, and chalk. Stones, minerals, and monuments are next. The
work concludes with a discussion of gemstones. Interpolated within this geologic
framework are two digressions: one on painters and painting, and a second on
sculptors and sculpture, giving a brief history of each. A final subject addressed in
the mineralogical sections is a copious amount of information on mining and the
* In this book he is referred to simply as Pliny